Fertilizers in agroforestry systems

This review encompasses results of fertilization experiments on several agroforestry systems—alley cropping, perennial shade systems, home gardens—in which fertilizer use is a likely management alternative. Fertilizer response was found to be most common in alley cropping, variable in perennial shade systems, and rarely reported in home gardens. Level of nutrient removal in harvested products is probably the overriding factor in determining fertilizer response; greater accumulation of organic residues, slower growth under shade, and longer periods of nutrient uptake probably also contribute to the relatively smaller fertilizer response of the perennial shade systems and home gardens. Considerable knowledge gaps exist regarding the breakdown of organic residues, and interactions between mineral and organic amendments. Systems based on annual crops (e.g., alley cropping) are likely to be less nutrient-efficient and sustainable than systems based on perennial crops, due to reduced fixation and transfer of N to the crops, the tendency of the trees to compete for and sequester nutrients, relatively high P requirements of the crops, and the high labor cost of tree management. The possible benefits of fertilization of specific components in home gardens, and relative advantages of including low-value tree legumes, high-value shade trees, and fertilization in shaded perennial systems are only beginning to receive research attention.     

Home garden system dynamics in Southern Ethiopia

Home gardens in southern Ethiopia are regarded as efficient farming systems, allowing interactions and synergies between crop, tree and livestock components. However, these age-old traditional home gardens are evolving rapidly in response to changes in both the socio-economic and biophysical environment. Altered cropping patterns, farm size and component interactions may affect the systems’ sustainability. Home gardens exhibit a huge diversity in farms and farming systems, which needs to be understood in order to design interventions for improvement. Dynamics of home gardens were studied over two-decades (1991–2013) based on a survey of 240 farm households and focus group discussions. Farms were grouped into five types: Khat-based, Enset-cereal-vegetable, Enset-based, Enset-coffee and Enset-livestock. Farm trajectories revealed a shift from food-oriented Enset-based and Enset-livestock systems to (1) cash crop oriented khat-based systems, and (2) combined food and cash crop oriented Enset-cereal-vegetable systems. In densely populated, market proximate areas a major trend was expansion of khat, from 6 to 35% of the area share per farm, while the combined area share of enset and coffee decreased from 45 to 25%. Concurrently, the cattle herd size fell from 5.8 TLU to 3.9 TLU per household. In medium populated, less accessible areas the trend was consolidation of combined production of food and cash crops. Enset and coffee together maintained a share of over 45%. Easy transport and marketing of the perishable cash-generating khat compared with traditional crops favoured its cultivation among smallholders located close to markets. The insights in home garden change in response to increasing population pressure, decreasing farm size and market development may help to design interventions to increase system sustainability.     

Biosocial and bionumerical diversity of variously sized home gardens in Tabasco, Mexico

The evaluation of species and structural diversity of home gardens strongly depends on the methods used. We distinguish the biosocial and the bionumerical method. The first is widely used and takes data of the whole population of trees of home gardens to calculate diversity. The bionumerical method calculates diversity from data of a fixed number of randomly selected trees. We apply both methods to analyze if structural and species diversity varies with home garden size, a theme of considerable conservation interest, and compare results. We inventoried the tree component of a sample of 61 home gardens from rural areas in Tabasco, Mexico, which we assigned to three size categories: small (≤1,000 m²), medium sized (>1,000 and ≤2,000 m²), and large home gardens (>2,000 m²). Average species richness and Shannon diversity indices determined by the biosocial method were significantly different among home garden size classes. Average species richness determined by the bionumerical method did not differ among size classes. Both methods showed highest total observed and estimated species richness in the large home gardens, which contain many unique species. Both methods showed similar overall species composition among size classes and highest structural diversity in large home gardens. We conclude that it is important for conservation to maintain large home gardens in local mosaics, and that the biosocial and bionumerical methods are complementary. The bionumerical method allows straight comparison of population diversity within and among systems, but lacks attention for rare and unique species. The biosocial method evaluates how much diversity families custody.     

中国竹子造园史考

考证了中国历代竹子造园的历史后认为,竹子造园同步于古典园林的发端,汉代应用于早期园林的“囿”和“苑”,六朝时期广泛用于造园,唐宋时期竹子造园进入大发展和全盛时期,竹子造园是在园林中再现自然的竹景,明清时期趋于成熟,并体现“雅”风格,借园林中竹景抒情言志。文中列举了历代著名园林中竹景之实例。     

The structure of four home gardens in the Petén,Guatemala

Forest-covered home gardens around the tropical world vary in their structure, but serve to supply food and other products for direct family consumption or marketing. Little quantitative data exist defining home garden structure. Thus, this study was undertaken to examine the variation in home garden structures in response to market or household needs and the subsequent variation in light interception and productivity.Four home gardens were studied in the Department of the Petén, in northern Guatemala. Areal extent and height of canopies were mapped in transects through four gardens representing a range of site water regimes and market orientation. Light intensities incident on the ground were measured along each transect to assess light use. Results showed structural complexity, with full canopy closure in the one or more layers within the canopy for most gardens. The garden architectures made efficient use of light and space, with intersive management for food and fuel production. Farmers grew the crops for both cash and family subsistence. One home garden on a comparatively dry site with shallow soil seemed less structured, with only a single broken canopy layer, but with diverse species of plants.The results indicate that development of gardens in this area utilized existing trees, thinning them to leave the most useful, and inserting other desirable trees and shrubs in the understory and in open spaces. This strategy seemed to maximize light use, regardless of market orientation.This look at the structure and composition of four home gardens, in a forested area of current immigration, demonstrated (1) variety of organization and plant components, (2) different architecture for different soil/site conditions and market orientations, and (3) efficient use of available light through the arrangement of plants.     

Agroforestry adoption in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve,Campeche, Mexico

Since farmers engage in a complex, dynamic process of learning-by-doing, evaluating economic incentives, and assessing risks in deciding whether to adopt agroforestry systems, a multi-pronged research approach is required for a complete analysis of adoption potential and to develop effective technological and institutional interventions. A case study is presented for using multiple approaches to analyse the potential for reforestation and improving livelihoods of small farmers through the adoption of agroforestry systems in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico. Specifically, the results from a participatory research project are combined with revealed preference analysis of a household survey to analyse past adoption decisions and preferences, identify limitations, test and evaluate alternatives, and evaluate methods for risk reduction. The participatory research trials suggest that continuous intercropping and line cleaning are equally effective for tree growth, while continuous cropping during the first years offers the additional advantage of early returns to investments through crop production. Farmer participation in the research process, planning of production systems, and annual evaluations, assisted farmers and researchers in identifying limitations, testing and evaluating alternatives, and improving the viability and sustainability of systems. The revealed preference analysis provides insights as to which households are most likely to initially adopt agroforestry systems developed through the participatory research trials. In general, households that originated from the Yucatan Peninsula with more education, more experience both in age of the head of household and technical and project experience, higher incomes, and those that had cleared more forestland were more likely to have experimented with agroforestry systems in the past.     

我国植物园新时期科学普及工作的思考——以中国科学院华南植物园为例

以中国科学院华南植物园为例,在对我国科普教育思想观念分析的基础上,探讨了新时期植物园科学研究同科普教育结合的新动向,并提出了专类园、展览温室、教育径、科普期刊、科普旅游等具体的方法措施及有关注意事项。     

屋顶花园的技术应用

城市化进程的加快促进了屋顶花园的发展,屋顶花园对城市环境有改善作用的同时也有一些潜在的不利因素。对屋顶花园建设中的常见问题,如屋顶防排水的构造、介质土的组成配比、覆土厚度、植物的选用、花园的管理养护等进行了阐述,并简要介绍了现在屋顶花园中应用的一些新技术和成功经验,如排疏板的应用、微灌技术的应用、抗旱性植物的推广等方面。     

Frugivory by five bird species in agroforest home gardens of Pontal do Paranapanema,Brazil

The inefficiency of conservation efforts based exclusively on natural habitat patches has called the attention of some conservationists to the matrix. Described as the major component of a landscape, the matrix is often agricultural, particularly in the tropics. In this context, agroforestry practices have been recognized for their ability to support a rich fauna and flora. Besides the extensive literature concerning bird communities in agroforestry systems, very few studies analyze how different species respond to the management of such practices. Our study describes the diet and habitat use frequency of five frugivorous bird species in agroforest home gardens, secondary forests, and pastures in the region of Pontal do Paranapanema, Brazil. The focal species were Ramphastos toco (Toco Toucan), Pteroglossus castanotis (Chestnut-eared Aracari), Amazona aestiva (Blue-fronted Amazon), Ara chloroptera (Green-winged Macaw), and Cyanocorax chrysops (Plush-crested Jay). We gathered both habitat use frequency and diet using the “feeding-bout” method. Overall frequency was higher in the secondary forest when compared to pasture and home gardens for all bird species except A. aestiva. The number of feeding bouts was higher in home gardens than in forests for all species with the exception of C. chrysops. Differences in monthly median feeding activity were only statistically significant for C. chrysops and for A. aestiva. The latter was the only species observed feeding in pasture habitats. The total number of food taxa was larger in home gardens than in the forest. Our results reinforce the importance of agroforestry systems as a resource-rich habitat for frugivorous birds.     

Traditional agroforestry practices in Zimbabwe

Traditional agroforestry systems in the communal areas of Zimbabwe are described. There are systems centered on main fields, on home gardens, on homesites and on grazing areas. In the main fields, the major tree-related management practice is the conservation of preferred indigenous fruit trees. Fruit trees are also the focus of forestry activities around the gardens and the homesite; but here it is the planting of exotic species. In a localized area of Zimbabwe Acacia albida is important in fields. There is almost no use of tree fallows in Zimbabwe. Trees in grazing areas have numerous roles, but at present there is little knowledge about traditional management practices in these areas. In the development of agroforestry systems in Zimbabwe it is suggested that those systems designed to improve fodder production will make a significant contribution to farm productivity because of the importance of cattle in the farming system and the present fodder shortage. Interventions involving the planting of fruit trees are likely to be very successful, as there is much interest in such planting. Another area that needs to be developed is that of tree plantings to improve soil fertility.     

Toward an understanding of tropical home gardens

Tropical home gardens are an agroforestry practice found worldwide. From an analytical perspective little is known about this practice. The universality of their complex structure would indicate the existence of common objectives. The objectives and resulting implementation strategies will dictate the form, layout, species composition and management style of each home garden. Understanding the interrelationships between these various elements is one step toward utilising the advantages of home gardens in a range of agroforestry practices.     

云南西双版纳傣族庭院C储量的研究

综合运用样方收获、生物量回归方程及标准木的方法进行样地调查,对西双版纳傣族庭院C储量进行了测定。结果表明傣族庭院的平均C密度为99 85tons·hm-2。证明传统傣族庭院作为一种生产和生态系统,具有良好的吸收CO2温室气体的能力。     

林木生物质高效精细粉碎研究现状及展望

生物质能的开发利用及产业化是当前研究的热点,粉碎加工是生物质能转化利用的重要预处理工序.粉碎粒度影响后期加工利用效果,粉碎效率和功耗是影响大规模开发利用生物质能源的关键因素.本文论述了林木生物质高效超细粉碎研究的意义,概述了国内外相关研究现状,并展望了生物质粉碎设备的发展趋势.     

昆明市小游园绿化景观植物资源调查研究

以昆明市小游园为研究对象,调查其绿化植物资源及数量等状况,提出植物名录.分析小游园植物资源的特点,认为小游园虽然比行道树的绿化植物种类多,但总体上植物种类仍较单一,仅有123种,其中竹类仅有4种,缺乏本土文化特色.建议以乡土树种为主、外来引种为辅,多开发观赏特性和生态效益较高的植物;在观花植物基础上,增加观果、垂直绿化植物的种类,并突出本土植物文化特色.     

Soil microarthropods as indicators of soil quality of tropical home gardens in a village in Kerala,India

The cosmopolitan distribution of soil microarthropods and their various degrees of adaptation make them suitable tools for assessing soil ecosystem health. In this study, the microarthropod abundance of 25 home gardens in Kerala state located in South West coast of India was studied during summer and north east monsoon season of 2014. The soil microarthropods were categorized into six groups: collembola, coleoptera, hymenoptera, araeneae, acari and diplopoda. Their numbers varied from 0 to 28 per 1000 cm³ and were more abundant in the rainy season than in summer. The occurrence of these microarthropods was positively correlated to soil moisture and organic carbon and had negative correlation to soil temperature and soil pH. The presence of eu-edaphic and epi-edaphic microarthropod fauna was used to derive the soil quality index of each home garden and soil quality classes were defined. Out of the 25 home gardens, two were of good quality, 21 were of medium quality and two were of poor quality. The study supports the scope of applying the indicator value of soil microarthropods in future studies related to soil quality, management and conservation of tropical home garden ecosystems, which are facing threats of removal of canopy and unscientific land management practices.     

海口琼山府城公共园林发展演变初探

在景观全球化的背景之下,城市个性和地域历史越来越受到重视,公共园林发展建设也成为了核心竞争力之一。在结合历史文献和前人研究成果的基础上,通过走访调研、拍照实测和绘图分析等方法,系统梳理出海口琼山府城的公共园林在不同时期的发展情况,从"城市发展——公共园林""公共园林——民众生活"的关系探索其生成原因、公共性质和时代特征,对今后公共空间的整合、地域文化的传承及社会生活质量的提升都有着非凡的价值。     

Home garden agrobiodiversity in cultural landscapes in the tropical lowlands of Tabasco,México

We studied whether agrobiodiversity in home gardens reflects the cultural landscapes that embed them. We compared floristic composition, biomass and cover of trees in home gardens between the cultural landscapes on mountain slopes (MSL), small hills (SHL), and floodplains (FPL) in a segment of the Grijalva–Usumacinta watershed in the tropical lowlands of Tabasco, Mexico. We characterized the cultural landscapes based on information obtained through questionnaires, identified species and measured tree height and diameter at breast height in random samples of home gardens from two localities in each case. The cultural landscapes showed distinct land use combinations: MSL comprised subsistence agriculture, pasturelands and forests; SHL pasturelands, some secondary vegetation and industrial agriculture fields; and FPL mainly industrial agriculture fields and pasturelands. Total species richness was greater in MSL than in SHL and FPL. Mean species richness was greater in MSL and SHL (22.4 and 15.8 respectively) than in FPL (7.2), as was the mean number of individuals per home garden (98.2, 94.1 and 20.4. Dominant species in home gardens in FPL and SHL included particular secondary species for each landscape, whereas single or double occurrences of mature forest species were distinctive of home gardens in MSL. Mean biomass was greater in MSL than in SHL and FPL (37.1, 28.2 and 23.7 Mg C ha^?1), as was tree cover (1.06, 0.95 and 0.76 m²/m²). We conclude that agrobiodiversity varies considerably among cultural landscapes and recommend the design of specific policies to enhance its conservation in each of them.     

Agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka

A review of agroforestry research and practice in Sri Lanka is provided with emphasis on traditional systems, plantation intercropping, silvopastoral systems, fertility improvement and community approaches. Comments are presented on the potentials and difficulties of each technology along with recommendations for further research and training. Some information on components of a number of agroforestry systems has been collected during the last 8 years. A brief account of the results is presented together with comments on current agroforestry practices.     

森林生态系统健康的研究进展

综述了森林生态系统健康的概念、内涵及评价方法,介绍了国内外关于森林生态系统健康的研究进展,对今后的发展进行了展望.