草甘膦与氰氟草酯对隆线溞的急性毒性研究

在水生食物链中,水溞是连结植物、微生物和动物的关键成员。草甘膦与氰氟草酯被广泛用于防除水生和稻田杂草,研究它们对水溞的毒性,有益于人们关注使用除草剂对水体生态系统的影响。试验以标准水体监测生物——隆线溞(Daphnia carinata)单克隆为材料,研究草甘膦和氰氟草酯对其泳动能力、存活率和趋光性的影响。结果表明,两种除草剂对隆线溞均有明显毒性,草甘膦对隆线溞24, 48和96 h的半致死浓度(LC₅₀)分别为66.58, 29.60和12.33 mg/L,为田间常规用药量的0.15%~0.81%;氰氟草酯对隆线溞24, 48和96 h的LC₅₀依次是63.15, 51.91和34.41 mg/L,为田间常规用药量的17.21%~31.58%。两种除草剂显著影响隆线溞的泳动能力和趋光指数。隆线溞接触草甘膦和氰氟草酯3 h后,导致其趋光指数显著改变的浓度分别是4.59和14.20 mg/L,分别为常规用药量的0.06%和7.10%。因此,草甘膦和氰氟草酯对水溞的毒性大,对水生食物链的影响不可忽视。利用水溞趋光性可快速、灵敏地监测除草剂使用后的水体生物毒性。     

11 种杀菌剂对3种拟茎点霉病菌的室内毒力测定

为筛选出李果腐病菌、桃枝枯病菌和蓝莓枝枯病菌的有效防治药剂,本研究采用菌丝生长速率法测定11种杀菌剂对上述3种拟茎点霉病菌(Phomopsis sp.)的室内毒力。结果表明：40%氟硅唑WP、40%咪鲜胺EW和12.5%腈菌唑EC等3种药剂对蓝莓枝枯病菌、桃枝枯病菌和李果腐病菌的毒力最强,EC50值均小于1μg/mL。其中40%氟硅唑WP对桃枝枯病菌和李果腐病菌的毒力最强,EC50值分别为0.02和0.13 μg/mL;40%咪鲜胺EW对蓝莓枝枯病菌菌丝生长的抑制作用最强,EC50值为0.66 μg/mL。本研究结果为这3种病害的田间防治药剂筛选提供理论依据。     

8种杀菌剂对桃实腐病菌的室内毒力测定

由扁桃拟茎点霉菌（Phomopsis amydalina）引起的桃实腐病是为害桃树果实的一种重要真菌性病害。为了能筛选到对该病菌具有强毒力的杀菌剂,本文采用菌丝生长速率法,用8种供试药剂对桃实腐病菌进行了室内毒力测定。结果表明：400g/L氟硅唑（EC）的毒力最强,其EC50值为0.0770μg/mL;其次为125g/L氟环唑（SC）,10%苯醚甲环唑（WG）,300g/L苯甲?丙环唑（EC）和500g/L异菌脲（SC）,它们的EC50值分别为0.2343μg/mL、0.2946μg/mL、0.4184μg/mL和0.4773μg/mL;70%丙森锌（WP）的毒力最弱,其EC50值达到2.1958μg/mL。根据毒力测定结果,我们认为400g/L氟硅唑（EC）可以作为桃实腐病田间药效试验的首选药剂。     

6种杀菌剂对猕猴桃主要腐烂病菌的室内毒力测定

葡萄座腔菌（Botryosphaeria dothidea）和拟茎点霉菌（Phomopsis sp.）是引起江西省奉新县猕猴桃果实腐烂的两种主要病原菌。本文采用菌丝生长速率法测定了6种杀菌剂对其室内毒力,结果表明拿敌稳（75%肟菌酯?戊唑醇）、扑海因（50%异菌脲）、世高（10%苯醚甲环唑）、甲基托布津（70%甲基硫菌灵）、百泰（60%吡唑醚菌酯?代森联）5种杀菌剂对葡萄座腔菌和拟茎点霉菌均有较强的毒力,对葡萄座腔菌的EC50值依次为0.1439μg/mL、0.1502μg/mL、0.1795μg/mL、0.2640μg/mL和0.9466μg/mL;对拟茎点霉菌的EC50值依次为0.0893μg/mL、0.2228μg/mL、0.1320μg/mL、0.4034μg/mL和0.7922μg/mL;杀菌剂翠贝（50%醚菌酯）则对两种病菌的毒力很弱,对葡萄座腔菌和拟茎点霉菌的EC50值分别高达7890.7μg/mL 和12881.0μg/mL。     

部分有机磷和拟除虫菊酯类农药对家蚕的毒性测定

基于为蚕区桑园及周围农田安全合理选择和使用农药提供科学依据的目的,采用浸叶法测定了部分常用有机磷和拟除虫菊酯类农药对家蚕的急性毒性,比较了同一类型不同有效成分或有效成分相同但由不同生产商生产的农药对家蚕的毒性,并根据其毒性强弱进行分级。结果表明:蛀迪(20%三唑磷EC)等5种有机磷类农药和比奇(4.5%高效氯氰菊酯EC)等16种拟除虫菊酯类农药对家蚕高毒性(0.1 mg/L≤LC50<10 mg/L),农斯特(48%毒死蜱EC)等5种有机磷类农药和甲功(2.5%高效氯氰菊酯EC)等3种拟除虫菊酯类农药为中等毒性(10 mg/L≤LC50<1 000 mg/L);同一类型农药不同有效成分或有效成分相同但由不同生产商生产的农药对家蚕的毒性不同。因此,在桑园及周围农田用药时应仔细分辨药剂生产商和有效成分种类,尽可能避免使用对家蚕高毒性的农药。     

草铵膦对桑园杂草的防除效果和对家蚕的毒性试验

以草铵膦、百草枯和草甘膦3种灭生性除草剂进行桑园杂草防除试验,以及对家蚕的毒性试验,评价新一代除草剂草铵膦的药效和安全性。200 g/L草铵膦AS 150倍、100倍和75倍稀释药液对桑园杂草的田间防除效果与30%草甘膦AS150倍稀释药液相近(P0.05),均优于200 g/L百草枯AS 100倍稀释药液(P0.01),除草的速效性明显优于30%草甘膦AS150倍稀释药液,持效期在30 d以上,比200 g/L百草枯AS 100倍稀释药液明显延长。200 g/L草铵膦AS对家蚕3龄起蚕的24 h急性经口毒性(LC50)为421.366 2 mg/L,其毒性高于30%草甘膦AS(LC506 000 mg/L),低于200 g/L百草枯AS(LC50=194.828 2 mg/L)。用200 g/L草铵膦AS 150倍、100倍和75倍稀释药液直接喷洒桑叶后3 d左右采叶养蚕,家蚕仍表现出明显的药害症状;喷药后4~5 d桑树叶片枯黄,在桑叶上的残毒期5 d。建议在桑园使用200 g/L草铵膦AS 150倍稀释药液,应定向对杂草茎叶部位均匀喷雾,避免喷洒到桑树枝干和叶片,喷药后5 d内勿采叶养蚕。     

25种除草剂对家蚕的毒性测定

本文用14类共25种常用除草剂为研究对象,对家蚕品种白玉×秋丰的中毒情况:急性毒性测定、残毒期测定、中毒症状观察等中毒情况进行了毒性等级区分和风险评价。试验结果表明,在25种供试除草剂中,异丙隆对家蚕的急性食下毒性最强,3龄起蚕的LC50为88.98 mg/L,百草枯的LC50为106.49 mg/L,均属于中毒等级;其余23种除草剂的LC50值均200 mg/L,为低毒等级。可见,绝大多数除草剂对家蚕相对安全。     

46种杀菌剂对家蚕的毒性与风险性评价

采用浸叶法测定了46种常用杀菌剂对家蚕的急性毒性,结果表明:30％吡唑醚菌酯悬浮剂对家蚕的毒性等级为高毒(0.5200 mg/L).根据各种农药田间推荐施用浓度与LC50的比值(毒性比分级法),30％吡唑醚菌酯悬浮剂对家蚕具有极高风险性,50％氟醚菌酰胺水分散粒剂等6种杀菌剂对家蚕具有高风险性,430 g/L戊唑醇悬浮剂等20种杀菌剂对家蚕具有中等风险性,40％腈菌唑悬浮剂等19种杀菌剂对家蚕具有低风险性.田间喷药试验结果表明:7种对家蚕高风险性杀菌剂和325 g/L苯甲·嘧菌酯悬浮剂推荐浓度药液喷于桑叶后对家蚕具有不同程度的毒性残留,其中30％吡唑醚菌酯悬浮剂1000倍(300 mg/L)和42.4％唑醚·氟酰胺悬浮剂1000倍(424 mg/L)的残毒期均超过60 d.因此,桑园及附近农作物应避免施用对家蚕毒性强、安全风险大、在桑叶上残留时间长的杀菌剂品种,防止污染桑叶而导致养蚕中毒损失.     

不同温度下5种拟除虫菊酯类农药对家蚕的毒性变化

拟除虫菊酯类农药对昆虫的毒性具有温度效应。采用食下毒叶法测定5种常用拟除虫菊酯类农药在环境温度35、30、25、20℃时对家蚕的急性毒性。随着温度的升高,5种拟除虫菊酯类农药对家蚕的急性毒性降低,在35℃时溴氰菊酯、氰戊菊酯、联苯菊酯、高效氯氰菊酯和高效氯氟氰菊酯对家蚕2龄幼虫的LD50值与20℃时的LD50值的比值分别为7.63、12.27、8.49、2.76、1.75。研究结果表明,5种拟除虫菊酯类农药对家蚕的急性毒性表现为负温度效应,其中氰戊菊酯对家蚕的毒性受温度的影响最为明显,溴氰菊酯和联苯菊酯较为明显,高效氯氰菊酯和高效氯氟氰菊酯的毒性受温度影响较小。     

不同杀菌剂对草坪草病原菌毒力的作用测定

采用生长速率法测定了不同杀菌剂对3种主要引起坪草病害的褐斑病菌、腐霉枯萎菌、夏季斑枯病菌的毒力。结果表明,烯唑醇、甲基硫菌灵、代森锰锌、咪鲜胺对立枯丝核菌的EC50值分别为0.078 3,5.968 4,7.181 2和11.386 8 mg/L,以烯唑醇对立枯丝核菌的毒力最高。烯唑醇、咪鲜胺、代森锰锌、甲基硫菌灵对夏季斑枯病菌的EC50值分别为0.016 2,0.554 4,6.035 3,1 218.497 8 mg/L,以烯唑醇抑菌效果显著优于其它3种杀菌剂。采用菌丝干重测定法测定了阿米西达、霜脲氰、霜克、咪鲜胺、代森锰锌对腐霉枯萎病菌的毒力,其EC50值依次为0.053 3,7.837 4,13.310 7,19.715 1,29.771 5 mg/L,以阿米西达的抑菌效果最好。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.