Soil organic matter and land degradation in semi-arid area,Israel

Soil organic matter (SOM) was monitored at five research sites along a climatic transect extending from the Judean Mountains (mean annual rainfall 700 mm; annual mean temperature 17 °C) to the Dead Sea (mean annual rainfall < 100 mm; annual mean temperature 23 °C) in Israel. At four sites, representing four climatic regions, Mediterranean (site GIV), semi-arid (site MAL), mildly arid (site MIS) and arid (site KAL), four to eight soil samples were taken four times a year, in January, March, May and September, from 1992 through 1993 and 1994 and in April and August 2000. In the last 2 months soil samples were also taken from another site (MAB) in the semi-arid area. Comparison between the sites along the climatic transect shows that, except for site MAB, SOM increased significantly in both 0–2 cm and 2–10 cm, from the arid site, through the mildly arid site and the semi-arid site, to the Mediterranean site. Analysis of SOM temporal patterns of the two semi-arid sites (MAL and MAB) shows significant change from the normal SOM pattern in both the regional scale and the soil profile scale in one site (MAB). The a-normal pattern of SOM and the low soil aggregate stability at MAB indicates land degradation and it is attributed to overgrazing.     

The effect of rock fragment size and position on topsoil moisture on arid and semi-arid hillslopes

Rock fragments on arid hillslopes affect rainwater redistribution and overland flow, through various hydrological processes. The present study focuses on the evolution of topsoil moisture content under rock fragments following rain events. Measurement was taken under rock fragments in various sizes (large and small) and positions (‘on top’ of the soil surface and 'partially embedded' within the soil surface) at north- and south-facing hillslopes in arid and semi-arid areas. The main findings: (1) the topsoil moisture content under rock fragments was higher over time than that of bare soil areas; (2) rock fragments affect the topsoil moisture content for a longer time in semi-arid areas than in arid areas; and (3) large rock fragments and ‘partially embedded’ ones are favorable micro-environments for accepting and retaining rainwater and overland flowing water. This may have eco-geomorphic implications regarding the mosaic-like patterns of source and sink areas on arid hillslopes.     

Soil degradation in environmentally sensitive areas driven by urbanization: an example from Southeast Europe

Rapid urbanization together with policy ineffectiveness in controlling urban growth is often associated to soil and land degradation in both the developing and developed world. The present study analyses the relationship between urban expansion and soil degradation in an arid Mediterranean region (Attica, Greece) where the compact settlement pattern has been replaced by low‐density urban development. The study area is one of the most densely populated areas in the Mediterranean basin that has experienced an impressive growth in population during the last 60 yr. Low‐density, dispersed urban settlements developed during the last decade (2000–2010) occupy primarily land at medium‐low soil quality. However, the overall quality conditions of vegetation, climate and soil assessed by our study shows that urban expansion consumed high‐quality land previously classified as non‐vulnerable to desertification. By contrast, compact urban settlements have consumed land of intermediate or even high soil quality, but experience poor climatic and vegetation conditions that are classified as highly vulnerable to desertification. Regional planning should incorporate multi‐dimensional indicators of soil, climate and vegetation quality to evaluate the environmental impact of urban expansion.     

Fifty Years on: Long‐term Patterns of Land Sensitivity to Desertification in Italy

The Mediterranean region has been regarded as a critical hotspot for desertification due to the impact of soil degradation, the land‐use changes and the climate variations. Few large‐scale studies have been devoted to analyse trends in land sensitivity to desertification in the northern Mediterranean basin. The present paper contributes to this deserving issue by quantifying the level of land sensitivity to desertification in Italy at seven points between 1960 and 2010 at a fine spatial scale. The approach used followed the Environmentally Sensitive Area scheme that assesses changes in four key themes (climate, soil, vegetation and land management) related to land degradation processes. Italian land was classified into four levels of sensitivity to desertification (non‐affected, potentially affected, fragile and critical) according to the Environmentally Sensitive Area framework. Interestingly, although land surface area classified as ‘fragile’ and ‘critical’ grew homogeneously in Italy between 1960 and 1990, the increase observed in the most recent time period was spatially clustered and contributed to reverse the polarisation in ‘structurally vulnerable’ and ‘non‐affected’ regions observed in Italy. The paper discussed these trends in the light of socioeconomic changes that occurred in Italy after World War II. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pluviometric gradient incidence and the hydrological behaviour of soil surface components (southern Spain)

The hydrological response of Mediterranean hillslopes depends on the type of soil surface components (SSC) which is controlled by the strongly climate. Along a Mediterranean climatic gradient, the type of soil surface component is modified as the aridity increases: biotic ones (annual plants, litter, moss and lichens) used to be more significant under humid climatic conditions, whereas abiotic ones (crusts, rock fragments and outcrops), under semiarid conditions. The aim of the study is to analyse the hydrological behaviour of different types of SSC in three field sites under different Mediterranean climatic conditions to (1) confirm whether the pluviometric gradient factor affects their hydrological response, and (2) whether, in each field site, SSC play the same role as controlling factors of infiltration processes. The method is based on grouping explanatory variables (related to precipitations, topography, vegetal cover, soil moisture and some soil physical, chemical and hydrological properties) through factorial analysis being applied for both regional and local approaches. The results confirm that the type of soil surface component acts as regulator of soil hydrological processes along the pluviometric gradient as well as at every field site, and show that the role played by the type of soil surface component is a much more significant key‐factor for the hydrological response of soils under dry‐Mediterranean climatic conditions. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Enzyme activities along a climatic transect in the Judean Desert

Soil enzymes have an important influence on nutrient cycling. We examined spatial and temporal patterns in dehydrogenase, arylsulfatase, alkaline and acid phosphatase activities, and their relationships with organic carbon and microbial biomass nitrogen at three sites in Israel representing different climatic regions: Mediterranean (humid), mildly arid and arid. The sites were selected along a climatic transect from the Judean Mountains in the west to the Dead Sea in the east of Israel. With increasing aridity, soil organic carbon, soil microbial biomass nitrogen, dehydrogenase, phosphatase and different pools of arylsulfatase activities decreased significantly. A sharp change in enzyme activities existed between 260- and 120-mm mean annual rainfall. The arylsulfatase activity of the microbial biomass in the 0–2- and 5–10-cm soil layers usually accounted for more than 50% of the total activity, and the fraction of total activity in the 0–2-cm soil layer of the arid sites was significantly greater than that of the humid site. Dehydrogenase and total and microbial biomass arylsulfatase activities were sensitive indicators of the climatic change along the transect. At the humid and mildly arid sites, the activities of dehydrogenase were less in the winter than in the summer and spring, whereas total and microbial biomass arylsulfatase activities were less in both summer and winter. At the arid site, lower values were observed in the summer at 0–2-cm soil depth. At all sites, lower alkaline phosphatase activities at 0–2 cm were observed in the summer, but there were no significant seasonal differences in acid phosphatase activities. These different seasonal patterns of enzyme activities are attributed to the enzyme source, and specific seasonal soil moisture and temperature conditions at the studied sites. The low dehydrogenase and microbial biomass arylsulfatase activities in the winter at the humid and mildly arid sites are explained by the cold and wet soil conditions, and the low enzyme activity in the summer at the arid site is attributed to the dry and hot soil conditions.     

Impacts of land use and plant characteristics on dried soil layers in different climatic regions on the Loess Plateau of China

A dried soil layer (DSL) formed in the soil profile is a typical indication of soil drought caused by climate change and/or poor land management. The responses of a soil to drought conditions in water-limited systems and the impacts of plant characteristics on these processes are seldom known due to the lack of comparative data on soil water content (SWC) in the soil profile. The occurrence of DSLs can interfere in the water cycle in soil-plant-atmosphere systems by preventing water interchanges between upper soil layers and groundwater. Consequently, a DSL may limit the sustainability of environmental restoration projects (e.g., revegetation, soil and water conservation, etc.) on the Loess Plateau of China and in other similar arid and semiarid regions. In this study, we investigated and compared the impacts of soil type, land use and plant characteristics within each of the three climatic regions (arid, semiarid, semihumid) of the Loess Plateau. A total of 17,906 soil samples from 382 soil profiles were collected to characterize DSLs across the Plateau.Spatial patterns of DSLs (represented by four indices: (1) DSL thickness, DSLT; (2) DSL forming depth, DSLFD; (3) mean SWC within the DSL, DSL-SWC; and (4) stable field water capacity, SFC) differed significantly among the climatic regions, emphasizing the importance of considering climatic conditions when assessing DSL variations. The impact of land use on DSLs varied among the three climatic regions. In the arid region, land use had no significant effect on DSLs but there were significant effects in the semiarid and semihumid regions (P < 0.05). The development of DSLs under trees and grasses was more severe in the semiarid region than in the semihumid region. In each climatic region, the extent of DSLs depended on the plant species (e.g., native or exotic, tree or grass) and growth ages; while only in the semiarid region, the DSL-SWC and SFC (P < 0.001) were significantly influenced by soil type. The DSL distribution pattern was related to the climatic region and the soil texture, which both followed gradients along the southeast-northwest axis of the Plateau. Optimizing land use can mediate DSL formation and development in the semiarid and semihumid regions of the Loess Plateau and in similar regions elsewhere. Understanding the dominant factors affecting DSLs at the regional scale enables scientifically based policies to be made that would alleviate the process of soil desiccation and sustain development of the economy and restoration of the natural environment. Moreover, these results can also be useful to the modeling of the regional water cycle and related eco-hydrological processes.     

Negative and positive effects of topsoil biological crusts on water availability along a rainfall gradient in a sandy arid area

Drylands are regarded as highly sensitive to climatic changes. A positive relationship between rainfall and environmental factors (water availability for plants, productivity, species diversity, etc.) is often assumed for areas with an annual rainfall of 100–300 mm. This assumption disregards the fact that a climatic change in arid and semi-arid areas is not limited to climatic factors. This change is often accompanied by a parallel change in surface properties. The alteration of surface properties may have opposite effects on the water regime and ecosystem characteristics. Data on rainfall, runoff, soil moisture regime, and vegetation cover were collected at five monitoring sites in a sandy area along the Israeli–Egyptian border, where average annual rainfall varies from 86 to 160 mm. Data obtained show a decrease in water availability for perennial plants with increasing annual rainfall, clearly expressed by a lower survival of perennial plants in the wetter area. Results obtained cast doubt of the prevailing idea regarding the positive relationship between average annual rainfall and ecosystem characteristics. The findings are attributed to the decisive role played by the non-uniform properties of the topsoil biological crusts along the rainfall gradient considered. Under wetter conditions a thick topsoil biological crust develops. This crust is able to absorb large rain amounts, limiting thus the depth of rainwater infiltration and water availability for the perennial vegetation. A better water regime was found in the drier area, where a thin crust allows deeper water infiltration and water concentration by surface runoff. The process described may be regarded as a desertification process with increasing annual rainfall.     

干旱半干旱区退化草地土壤水分变化及其对降雨时间格局的响应

降雨是干旱半干旱地区的主要水分来源,降雨量、降雨时长和降雨强度等共同影响降雨入渗,进而影响降雨对地表下不同土层的补充。研究干旱半干旱区退化草地生态系统不同土层土壤水分对不同量级降雨时间格局的动态响应变化,对于揭示水土关键要素、草地荒漠化防止及应对气候变化的影响均具有重要意义,基于2018年连续对锡林郭勒盟正镶白旗额里图牧场的降雨及地表下5,15,30,60,100 cm的土壤体积含水率数据的观测,探讨了各土层土壤水分变化及其对降雨事件大小的响应。结果表明:对于干旱半干旱区草地而言,降雨可以显著影响5-60 cm的土层土壤水分;随着土层加深,相同降雨过程引起的土壤水分增量呈降低趋势,0-10,10-20 cm土层土壤水分增量明显,小于3,6,20,50 mm的降雨不能到达地表以下5,15,30,60 cm土层;高降雨强度、降雨前较高的土壤含水率有利于雨水的下渗,5-60 cm土层的土壤水分增量与降雨强度、土壤初始含水率以及二者交互作用均呈显著或极显著线性关系,100 cm土层的土壤水分增量与降雨强度、土壤初始含水率以及二者交互作用均无显著线性关系,且30,60 cm土层土壤水分增量只在无雨日间隔极短且降雨量很大的情况下有明显波动。     

电阻率成像法监测人工梭梭林土壤水分

土壤水分是影响干旱半干旱沙区植物生长发育的主要限制因素。快速、准确地监测土壤水分时空动态可为干旱半干旱区植被建设与生态恢复提供科学依据。以乌兰布和沙漠东北部人工梭梭固沙林土壤为研究对象,在林内、外(根际、冠中、冠缘、行间、林外)设置了5条监测样线,分别于一次强降雨后的第2天、第15天、第55天用多电极电阻仪定位测定了土壤电阻率,同步采取土样用烘干法测定了土壤实际含水率,建立了土壤含水率与土壤电阻率之间的相关关系,并对二维剖面土壤水分空间分布特征进行了分析。结果表明:1)土壤含水率与土壤电阻率之间为极显著负相关关系(P0.01),可用幂函数表示。2)5条测线的土壤电阻率在3次监测时均随土层深度增加而减小,而土壤含水量随土层深度增加而增大,根际冠中冠缘行间林外。强降水后的不同时间内,由于受土壤属性、树冠对水分再分配、树干径流、根系吸收水分等影响,二维剖面上土壤水分空间分布格局有明显变化。随着雨后干旱时间的延长,0～51 cm水分含量由于受蒸发、植物吸收利用的影响而明显降低。3)电阻率成像技术在野外能快速准确,长期定位监测土壤水分含量;对地表扰动小,实现了非破坏性测量;保证测定精度的同时,还能提供尺度较大的土壤水分空间分布的详实数据,可高效快速地获取连续的土壤水分分布信息。     

Soluble salts dynamics in the soil under different climatic conditions

The dynamics of soluble salts concentration in the soil was investigated at seven research stations in Israel that represent four climatic regions: Mediterranean, semi-arid, mildly arid and arid. Measurements were taken in different seasons from soils that were developed on hillslopes, which are consisted of hard calcareous rocks. The relationship between the soluble salts content and rainfall was found to be non-linear. An abiotic threshold, which is characterized by a sharp change in the soluble salts content, exists around 200 mm isohyet: sites that receive less than 200 mm rainfall are characterized by significantly high soluble salts content whereas sites that receive more than 200 mm are characterized by very low soluble salts content. Each side of this abiotic threshold expresses typical behavior that can be defined as “environmental signature”. At the “dry” side of the threshold temporal heterogeneity, rate of change, potential of change and differences between layers are higher than those at the “wet” side of the threshold.     

中国北方旱农地区农田水分动态变化特征

北方旱地区域农田水分特征的主要影响因子是自然降水和农田蒸散量。在区域尺度上，农田潜在蒸散量是半干旱偏旱区＞半湿润偏旱区＞半干旱区。半干旱偏旱区农田水分平均潜在亏缺量为517 mm，最大亏缺量为968 mm，最小亏缺量为162 mm。半干旱区旱地农田水分平均潜在亏缺、最大亏缺和最小亏缺量分别为274、688和－34 mm，半湿润偏旱区上述3个参数分别为157、469和－180 mm。由于降水的时空变化，不同类型地区农田土壤水分储存量也产生了区域分异，3种不同类型地区农田土壤水分在农作物不同发育期储存量的变化是半湿润偏旱区＞半干旱区＞半干旱偏旱区。旱地作物耗水主要来源于生育期间的有效降水和播种前的土壤蓄水。     

The effects of soil moisture variability on the vegetation pattern in Mediterranean abandoned fields (Southern Spain)

The demographic pressure decrease in Southern Spanish Mediterranean mountainous areas in the mid twentieth century led to the abandonment of agriculture and rupture in the geo-ecosystem balance which had existed until then. Since then, different phases of recovery have been put into action to return the landscape to its earlier natural condition according to climate and soil degradation state after the abandon. In Mediterranean climatic conditions (between subhumid and semi-arid regimes), degraded soil recovery has followed different tendencies rendering the landscape in heterogenic and complex one. This heterogeneity has manifested in the vegetation pattern of abandoned fields. In this paper, we analyze the state of three abandoned fields situated under different Mediterranean climatic conditions from the recovery point of view by means of monitoring the effects of spatial and temporal variability of soil moisture in the vegetation pattern over a period of two years sampling (Nov. 2002–Nov. 2004). The results showed that: i) more annual rainfall volume did not guarantee success in the biological recovery of the system due to the influence of other factors such as the degradation state of the soil post-abandonment or the steep slope gradient; ii) soil moisture variability tended to play a more important role in affecting vegetal cover in semi-arid conditions; and iii) in dry climatic conditions the system demonstrated greater signs of recovery (greater biodiversity).     

黑龙江省西部半干旱区土壤水分空间变异性研究

土壤中的水分是影响半干旱区作物生长的重要因素,由于自身的特点决定了其在空间分布上存在着变异性。以黑龙江省西部半干旱农业气候区的查哈阳农场为研究对象,利用GS 地统计软件和ArcGIS中的地统计分析模块(Geostatistical Analyst),对该地区土壤水分特性的空间变异性进行分析,得出土壤水分特性的变异程度、影响因素以及空间分布图。借助于土壤水分特性的空间分布图对该地区的灌溉水量进行了分析,为该地区的合理灌溉和精确灌溉提供依据。     

Vegetation strategies for soil water consumption along a pluviometric gradient in southern Spain

Changes in vegetation and soil hydrological resources occur in southern Spain because of the presence of a pluviometric gradient from west (1100 mm year^?1) to east (240 mm year^?1). Five hillslopes under different rainfall regimes were selected along this gradient and studied over a 4-year period. The objectives of the work were to analyze variation in soil moisture, water availability for plants, and drying processes on the hillslopes, and relationships between these factors and the annual variability of vegetation cover. The results show that clay content is a key factor defining the limit of water availability in the soil (the wilting point). Significant differences between soil moisture/available water and vegetation cover were observed, defining a positive feedback process that varied in nature along the pluviometric gradient. The more arid the climatic conditions the weaker the feedback between water content and vegetation cover. These observations can be explained by the greater water requirements of plant species growing on the more humid hillslopes, resulting in a rapid uptake of available water and higher water stress. However, at the driest sites the vegetation species were better adapted to the lack of water and more independent of rainfall. Available water at these sites did not decrease, because the lower number of days with a water deficit resulted in water availability for plants over a longer period of time.     

Detection of soil moisture and vegetation water abstraction in a Mediterranean natural area using electrical resistivity tomography

Vegetation growth in semiarid, Mediterranean ecosystems is greatly dependent on moisture availability in the soil, as little precipitation is available during the growing season. Predicting the effects of climate change on vegetation development requires understanding of the exact relation between climate, moisture availability, and plant growth. Accurate moisture measurements in naturally vegetated areas are difficult because of high spatial variability and because of the coarse, shallow soils. In this study, we evaluated the possibilities of using Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) to measure soil moisture availability and plant water use in a Mediterranean natural area. We found that ERT is a useful tool for measuring soil conditions, providing information on the spatial patterns within the soil and reaching depths otherwise inaccessible. In heterogeneous soils, we differentiated between lithological and moisture effects in the measurements using multitemporal data. Absolute calibration to moisture content was sometimes possible, but strongly location dependent. Based on the ERT measurements, we found that although the soils in the study area are shallow and rocky, plant roots penetrate deeply into the fractured and weathered bedrock, and vegetation subtracts water from depths down to 6 m and below. This information is important for understanding the plant–soil relations and modeling vegetation development. We conclude that ERT provides crucial information on soil moisture processes unavailable using any other currently available measurement method.     

干旱、半干旱地区水系空间分布的分形特征及其流域环境的初步探讨——以吐鲁番市和鄯善县为例

应用分形理论,对干旱、半干旱地区的吐鲁番市和鄯善县水系的空间分布进行了分析,从分维数上揭示了这两个研究区内水系空间分布的特点,同时也指出了该地区水系网络结构简单的原因,及其流域环境存在的一些问题,对干旱、半干旱地区的水系现状进行了探讨,为分形理论在干旱、半干旱地区的应用进行了初步探讨。     

Differential hydrological response of biological topsoil crusts along a rainfall gradient in a sandy arid area: Northern Negev desert,Israel

Drylands are regarded as highly sensitive to climatic change. The putative positive relationship between average annual rainfall and runoff, assumed for areas between 100 and 300 mm ignores the fact that climatic change in drylands is not limited to climatic factors alone, but is often accompanied by a parallel change in surface properties. Data on rainfall, runoff and soil moisture regime were collected at five monitoring sites in a sandy area, along a rainfall gradient from 86 to 160 mm. Despite the uniform sandy substratum the frequency and magnitude of runoff declined with increasing annual rainfall. Under wetter conditions a thick topsoil biological crust develops. This crust is able to absorb and retain large rain amounts, limiting the depth to which water can penetrate, and therefore water availability for the perennial vegetation. In the drier area, the thin crust can absorb only limited rain amounts, resulting in surface runoff and deeper water infiltration at run-on areas. Our findings demonstrate the important role played by different types of biological soil crusts along the rainfall gradient considered, and question the generally held belief that higher rainfall necessarily leads to deeper water infiltration in sandy arid areas; and higher water availability for the perennial vegetation.     

Spatial and short-term temporal variations in runoff,soil aggregation and other soil properties along a mediterranean climatological gradient

Physical and chemical soil properties were measured along a mountainous climatological gradient in the province of Alicante (Spain). The objective was to evaluate how the climate affects certain soil properties at different temporal and spatial scales. These properties include infiltration, runoff and sediment concentrations resulting from rainfall simulation experiments performed in winter and in summer. Chemical soil properties like carbonate content, organic matter content and CEC were analysed in reference soil profiles along the gradient. Physical soil properties like soil moisture content, macroaggregation and waterstable microaggregation were measured at monthly intervals during a year. The comparison of the results was done at different spatial (site, slope and patch) and temporal (monthly and seasonal) scales by means of some statistical tests. It can be concluded that there are some soil properties positively related to the gradient, like organic matter, clay content and CEC which increase with the annual rainfall. However, runoff coefficients and erosion are higher when the climatic annual rainfall. However, runoff coefficients and erosion are higher when the climatic conditions become more arid. Aggregation and infiltration capacity are higher on north-facing slopes and in vegetated patches than in south-facing slopes and in bare patches.     

A State‐Space Analysis of Soil Organic Carbon in China's Loess Plateau

An accurate estimation of soil organic carbon (SOC) is important for the evaluation and management of carbon (C) flux in terrestrial ecosystems. However, there is little work on the spatial variability of SOC in deep soils and its driving factors. Thus, the objective of the study was to derive the primary factors dominating the spatial distribution of SOC in different soil layers with the use of the autoregressive state‐space approach. The concentration of SOC was measured to the depth of 500 cm (n  = 86) along a south–north transect of China's Loess Plateau. The mean SOC of the 500‐cm soil profile generally decreased from south to north following the decreasing rainfall gradient. Based on the investigated factors, the state‐space model was able to capture 90.3–99.9% of the spatial variability of SOC in the various soil layers. According to the coefficients in the optimal state‐space model for each soil layer, climatic factors such as precipitation and temperature had a dominant control over the spatial distribution of SOC at shallow depths. However, both climatic and edaphic (e.g. soil texture) factors, and to a small extent land use, influenced the spatial behavior of SOC at the 40–200 cm soil depth. For soil layers below 200 cm, the importance of land use was revealed, and the spatial characteristics of SOC were together driven by land use, climatic and edaphic factors. This is critical for the management of soil C flux in deep soils and the C stock and cycle in terrestrial ecosystems. Table SI. Basic properties of soils and climate and elevation under three land uses along the south–north transect on the Loess Plateau (mean ± standard deviation). Note that SWC is gravimetric soil water content. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.