几种伴生植物水浸液对杉木生长的影响研究

用8种杉木伴生植物及杉木的茎和叶不同浓度水平(水平Ⅰ为166.7g/kg,水平Ⅱ83.3g/kg,水平Ⅲ41.7g/kg·水平Ⅳ20.8g/kg)的水浸液浇灌盆栽杉本幼苗,连续观测6年结果表明8种植物水浸液浇灌后杉木高度与地径比对照Ⅰ(浇灌杉木自身水浸液)和对照Ⅱ(仅浇灌清水)均有不同程度提高。不同浓度水浸液对杉木高度和地径的促进作用依次为水平Ⅰ>水平Ⅱ>水平Ⅲ>水平Ⅳ>对照Ⅱ,不同植物水浸液对杉木株高的促进作用则为木荷>檵木>椤木石楠>狗脊>丝粟栲>赤楠>马尾松>芒萁>杉木(对照Ⅰ)     

含氧萜类化合物对稗草的化感抑制作用

以5种含氧萜类物质(-)香芹醇、(+)香芹酮、(-)薄荷酮、(-)香芹基乙酸酯和(+)雪松醇为化感物质替代物,以稗草为受体,运用正交旋转回归组合实验,分析物质间的互作效应.各单因子的主效应分析结果表明:(-)香芹醇、(+)香芹酮、(-)薄荷酮和(-)香芹基乙酸酯的主效应曲线均为开口向下的抛物线,而(+)雪松醇为开口向上的抛物线.各单因子的边际效应分析表明:当浓度低于-2水平时各因子对稗草根长的抑制作用大小为(-)薄荷酮>(-)香芹醇>(+)香芹酮>(-)香芹基乙酸酯>(+)雪松醇,当各因子浓度高于+2水平时,则为(+)雪松醇>(+)香芹酮>(-)香芹基乙酸酯>(-)香芹醇>(-)薄荷酮.综合分析显示,当各物质浓度水平分别为(-)香芹醇0.033mmol·L-1、(+)香芹酮0.030 mmol·L-1、(-)薄荷酮0.080 mmol·L-1、(-)香芹基乙酸酯0.020 mmol˙-1和(+)雪松醇0.001 mmol·L-1时,方程有最优解,即在理论上其混合物对稗草根长的抑制率达到最大,为93.69%.     

邻羟基苯甲酸对不同化感型杉木无性系抗氧化酶活性的化感效应

自毒作用是导致杉木人工林连栽地力衰退、生产力下降的主要原因之一,邻羟基苯甲酸是杉木主要自毒物质之一。以筛选的自毒物质忍耐型杉木无性系(01号)和自毒物质敏感型杉木无性系(02号)组培苗为试验材料,分析邻羟基苯甲酸对2个不同化感型杉木无性系抗氧化酶活性的化感效应,以期为解决杉木连栽障碍提供一条新的生物途径。研究结果表明,邻羟基苯甲酸各胁迫浓度对不同化感型杉木无性系SOD活性的化感效应在胁迫10d、20d表现为促进效应,胁迫30d转变为抑制效应;2个不同化感型杉木无性系SOD活性化感效应的差异主要从胁迫20d开始,01号在胁迫20d促进效应大于02号,30d的抑制效应明显小于02号。各胁迫浓度对2个不同化感型杉木无性系叶片POD及AsA-POD活性的化感效应均表现为促进效应;胁迫第10d、20d时,各胁迫浓度对01号无性系POD活性的促进效应明显大于02号;01号无性系在受到胁迫后AsA-POD活性迅速增强,并在长时间胁迫后仍维持比02号无性系更高的活性;01号无性系PPO活性在各胁迫浓度下均表现为促进效应,而02号无性系则随胁迫时间的延长表现为抑制-促进-抑制的变化特点。     

邻羟基苯甲酸对不同化感型杉木无性系内源激素含量的化感效应

以筛选的自毒物质忍耐型(01 号)和自毒物质敏感型(02 号)杉木无性系为试验材料, 采用胁迫试验分析邻羟基苯甲酸对2 个不同化感型杉木无性系内源激素含量的化感效应。研究结果表明, 邻羟基苯甲酸对不同化感型杉木无性系ABA 含量表现为促进效应, 其中对01 号杉木无性系的促进效应大于02 号; 邻羟基苯甲酸对不同化感型杉木无性系IAA、GA₃ 含量表现为抑制效应, 胁迫后期邻羟基苯甲酸对02 号无性系GA₃ 含量的抑制效应较01 号强, 2 个无性系间IAA 含量的抑制效应差异不明显; 邻羟基苯甲酸对不同化感型杉木无性系ZR 含量的化感效应表现为胁迫第20 d 达到抑制效应高峰期, 随后抑制作用下降, 邻羟基苯甲酸对02 号无性系ZR 含量的抑制效应强于01 号无性系。     

瑞香狼毒全株水提液对7种植物的化感作用研究

研究了不同质量浓度的瑞香狼毒全株水提液对7种植物种子萌发和幼苗生长的影响。结果表明,不同质量浓度的瑞香狼毒植株水提液促进了胡枝子种子的萌发,抑制了垂穗披碱草、醉马草、铁棒槌、平车前、翠雀花和画眉草种子的萌发。较低质量浓度的瑞香狼毒水提液促进了供试植物根长的生长,较高质量浓度下起抑制作用。不同质量浓度的瑞香狼毒水提液对醉马草、胡枝子、翠雀花、画眉草、铁棒槌的芽长起抑制作用,而对垂穗披碱草、平车前均表现为低质量浓度起促进作用,高质量浓度起抑制作用。在对瑞香狼毒为主要优势种的退化高寒草地进行改良时,可选择瑞香狼毒抑制作用较小的草种,即垂穗披碱草,可减轻由于选择草种不当而造成的经济损失。     

凋落物对2针叶树种种子萌发和幼苗生长的影响

通过研究华北落叶松云杉混交林下凋落物对2优势树种种子萌发及幼苗生长的影响表明：1）4种凋落物水浸液抑制华北落叶松和云杉种子的萌发,50.0 g/L的华北落叶松和云杉针叶水浸液的抑制作用较强;2）华北落叶松针叶和白桦树皮的水浸液促进华北落叶松幼苗生长,云杉针叶水浸液起抑制作用;3）白桦树皮水浸液抑制云杉幼苗生长,其他3种凋落物水浸液低质量浓度时促进云杉幼苗生长,高质量浓度抑制其生长;4）5.0和12.5 g/L的白桦树皮水浸液促进华北落叶松幼苗生物量,25.0和50.0 g/L时起抑制作用;5）4种水浸液均强度抑制云杉幼苗生物量;6）4种凋落物水浸液对华北落叶松和云杉种苗的影响以抑制作用为主,对云杉的作用强于华北落叶松.     

柠条锦鸡儿叶浸提液对4种冰草化感作用的初步研究

为了明确豆科植物(柠条锦鸡儿)与禾本科植物之间的互作关系,利用生物检测法研究了柠条锦鸡儿叶浸提液对4种冰草的化感作用。结果表明:柠条锦鸡儿叶浸提液对4种冰草种子萌发和幼苗生长具有低浓度(≤0.02g/ml)促进和高浓度(≥0.02g/ml)抑制的化感效应,并且抑制作用随浓度的增大而加强;4种冰草保护性酶(SOD,POD)随浸提液浓度的增加呈\"N\"字形变化规律,过氧化氢酶(CAT)、丙二醛(MDA)、根系活力(TTC)、非保护酶(PAL,PPO)活性随浸提液浓度的增加呈先降低后增加的\"V\"字形变化规律。综合分析可知,柠条锦鸡儿叶浸提液对4种冰草具有化感作用,能够影响4种冰草正常生长,其敏感性顺序依次为蒙古冰草扁穗冰草蒙农杂交冰草沙生冰草,蒙古冰草是柠条锦鸡儿叶浸提液的敏感受试植物。     

柠条锦鸡儿茎叶水浸提液对4种农作物幼苗生理特性的影响

采用改进的水浸提液法制得浸提母液,土培法对玉米、小麦、糜子和荞麦进行幼苗生长试验,研究不同浓度柠条锦鸡儿茎叶水浸提液对4种牧草幼苗的影响.结果表明:25.0 mg/ml的柠条茎叶水浸提液使4种农作物幼苗丙二醛(MDA)含量增加,但根系活力却明显降低,而叶片细胞膜透性显著增加;4种农作物幼苗叶绿素含量分别下降了45.00％,29.00％,46.67％和35.71％.当柠条茎叶水浸提液浓度为25.0 mg/ml时,4种农作物幼苗体内超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性仅糜子表现出显著的促进作用;糜子、荞麦和小麦幼苗体内过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性显著增高;过氧化物酶(POD)活性均表现出显著增加;当浓度为100.0 mg/ml时,4种农作物幼苗体内SOD、CAT和POD的活性均有显著抑制.从化感综合效应指数来看,柠条茎叶水浸提液对4种农作物幼苗生理特性的化感抑制效应大小为糜子＞荞麦＞小麦＞玉米.     

泡核桃叶水浸提液对4种蔬菜种子萌发及幼苗生长的化感效应

为研究泡核桃凋落叶对生菜（Lactuca sativa）、白菜（Brassica pekinensis）、菜心（Brassica chinensis）和辣椒（Capsicum annuum） 4种蔬菜的化感综合效应,采用发芽试验,利用培养皿纸床法,研究泡核桃凋落叶不同浓度水浸提液对4种不同参试材料种子萌发及幼苗生长的影响。结果表明,4种参试材料对泡核桃叶化感作用的敏感性从强到弱依次为生菜>菜心>白菜>辣椒,对生菜的抑制作用最强（SE=-0.30）,辣椒具有很好的适应性（SE=0.22）;浸提液对种子的发芽指数影响最大,其次为发芽势,发芽率影响最小;在幼苗生长阶段,浸提液对地下部分根长影响最大（SE=-0.12）,对地上部分影响相对较小,当浓度为40 g/L时,对根长均起到抑制作用。不同浓度泡核桃水浸提液对蔬菜种子的萌发和幼苗生长均呈现不同程度的促进和抑制作用。本研究结果为辣椒用于农林复合种植研究提供了理论依据和指导。     

紫茎泽兰叶片凋落物对入侵地4 种草本植物的化感作用

为了明确紫茎泽兰叶片凋落物对入侵地草本植物的化感作用, 研究了不同浓度紫茎泽兰叶片凋落物水提液对入侵地草本植物多年生黑麦草、白三叶、辣子草和紫花苜蓿种子萌发和幼苗生长的影响, 同时结合土培试验研究了叶片凋落物在入侵地土壤中的化感作用。结果表明, 除多年生黑麦草外, 水提液对其他3 种草本植物种子萌发均产生了显著的化感抑制作用, 且水提液的浓度越高抑制效果越强; 低浓度水提液对紫花苜蓿和辣子草的幼苗生长存在显著化感促进作用, 高浓度的水提液对除多年生黑麦草外的其他3 种植物幼苗的生长存在显著化感抑制作用, 水提液对多年生黑麦草幼苗生长的影响不显著; 土壤中按照50 g·kg^-1的比例添加叶片凋落物后, 显著抑制了白三叶的生长, 而添加活性炭后, 白三叶的单株生物量相对于未添加活性炭的处理增加71.25%, 进一步证实叶片凋落物在土壤中的化感抑制作用。这说明外来入侵植物紫茎泽兰可能通过其叶片凋落物在入侵地土壤中降解, 释放化感物质, 抑制伴生植物的种子萌发和幼苗生长, 为自身创造有利的生长环境, 实现其成功入侵和扩张。     

浮游动物在生物操纵法除藻中的作用研究

采用室外现场实验和室内受控生态系统实验相结合的方法,研究了富营养化水体中浮游动物对藻类生长的控制作用。对浮游动物与藻类的计数与测量数据,利用SPSS统计软件进行了方差分析（LSD多重比较法）和相关性分析。实验结果显示,总磷含量比总氮含量对浮游动物生长的影响更大。浮游动物与藻类之间呈现显著或极显著相关关系,说明浮游动物群体,尤其甲壳类群体,在适当条件下对藻类群体以及其中的蓝藻有一定的控制作用。适当的鱼类密度下,浮游动物能够起有效的控藻作用,但鱼类密度过高会抑制该作用。底泥在生态系统中起重要作用,能够影响浮游动物对藻类的摄食力。     

Beneficial effects of blue-green algae and Azolla, excluding supplying nitrogen, on wetland rice fields: a review

 The role of blue-green algae (BGA) and Azolla in supplying N to rice fields is well documented. In addition, they also bring about, directly or indirectly, a number of changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and soil-water interface in rice fields. For example, BGA liberate extracellular organic compounds and photosynthetic O₂ during their growth, while Azolla prevent a rise in the pH, reduce water temperature, curb NH₃ volatilisation and suppress weeds; and both of them contribute biomass. On decomposing, they influence the redox activity and result in the formation of different organic acids in soil. All such changes brought about by BGA and Azolla in soil may ultimately influence plant-available nutrients and also soil characteristics. An attempt has been made in this review to highlight these effects of BGA and Azolla in rice fields and discuss their possible implications relating to management and productivity of rice-field systems. Received: 4 February 1998     

Allelopathic effects of artemisinin on ectomycorrhizal fungal isolates in vitro

The anti-malarial drug artemisinin is extracted from the leaves of Artemisia annua L. The release of artemisinin into forest soils could produce a potential risk for forest ecosystems, including effects on ectomycorrhizal fungal nutrient uptake, in areas where commercial and continual cultivation of the medicinal plant A. annua L. is practiced. Therefore, growth, proton and oxalate efflux, and nutrient uptake (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) of three isolates of Suillus luteus (S. luteus 1, S. luteus 13, and S. luteus 11) and of one isolate of Suillus subluteus (S. subluteus 12) were compared in culture solutions with different nominal artemisinin concentrations. The results showed that artemisinin inhibited significantly the growth of all studied fungi. With 25 mg artemisinin L⁻¹ added, fungal biomass was decreased by 78.6% (S. luteus 1), 96.7% (S. luteus 13), 77.8% (S. luteus 11) and 86.8% (S. subluteus 12) compared with the control (without artemisinin). This could explain, at least in part, why ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarps in forests are consistently not found near cultivated A. annua L. fields. The amount of proton efflux by the fungal isolates also decreased as nominal artemisinin concentrations increased, indicating the limited ability of ectomycorrhizal fungi to mobilize nutrients from soil minerals. However, nominal artemisinin significantly increased the rate of fungal oxalate efflux, suggesting membrane damage and the abnormal opening of anion channels on hyphae cell membranes. Nominal artemisinin also decreased the uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium by the fungal isolates, which may not benefit from the nutrient uptake by ectomycorrhizae. Therefore, artemisinin released from large A. annua L. plantations may inhibit ectomycorrhizal fungal growth, nutrition and functions in forest ecosystems in Southwest China.     

Assessment of allelopathic effects of residues of Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze on wheat seedlings

Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze, an invasive plant, poses a serious threat to the structure and function of the native ecosystem in Hebei Provience, China. However, little is known about the allelopathic activity of the residues of this plant species. In this study, the impact of the phytotoxicity of unburnt (UR) and burnt (BR) residues of the exotic invasive weed on the growth of wheat (Triticum aestivvm L.) was assessed. Extracts prepared from both UR and BR reduced the shoot length, root length and dry weight of wheat significantly compared with the control, thereby indicating the presence of some water-soluble allelochemicals in F. bidentis residues. Growth studies conducted in soil amended with UR and BR extracts or residues also revealed phytotoxic effects towards wheat. A significant amount of phenolics was detected in the residue extracts and in residue-incorporated soil. The phenolic content rose with increasing residue concentration, thereby showing their direct involvement in the observed growth inhibition. The inhibition of wheat growth by the burnt residue and its water extracts was similar to that of unburnt residue, so burning it is not a good way to eliminate the allelopathic effects of the residue of F. bidentis on native plants.     

The effect of surface growth of blue-green algae and bryophytes on some microbiological,biochemical, and physical soil properties

Summary The influence of surface growth of inoculated cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) on subsurface properties of a brown earth, silt loam soil was studied in reconstituted flooded soil columns. One blue-green algae species, Nostoc muscorum, become dominant within the first 7 days of inoculation. In light control columns (not inoculated) a bryophyte, Barbula recurvirostra, was dominant although significant growth of indigenous blue-green algae occurred. The blue-green algae counts were in the range of 1×10⁶ g^-1 dry soil in the surface layer (0–0.7 cm) in both columns. Any effect of surface phototrophic growth on soil properties was restricted to the surface layer. In inoculated columns there was a twofold increase in microbial biomass and an eightfold increase in bacterial numbers by week 13. However, bacterial numbers declined so that there was only a 2.8-fold increase by week 21. Dehydrogenase (x2.1), urease (x2.8) and phosphatase (x3.1) activities and polysaccharides (+69%) increased by week 21 as a result of the blue-green algae inoculation along with a significant improvement in soil aggregation. However, similar increases occurred in the light control columns, indicating that given appropriate conditions of light and moisture indigenous species may be ultimately as effective as introduced species in bringing about biochemical and microbiological changes to soil.     

Effect of green manuring,blue-green algae and neem-cake-coated urea on wetland rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Summary A field trial was set up to examine the effect of green manuring, blue-green algae, and neem-cake-coated urea on a rice crop. Summer green manuring using Sesbania aculeata increased the crop yield. Inoculation of blue-green algae increased the rice grain yield when 60 kg N ha^-1 was applied as prilled urea, but the increase in grain yield was greater when 60 kg N ha^-1 was applied as neem-cake-coated urea. The results of the present study show that applications of green manure, neem-cake-coated urea, and blue-green algae are complementary and that the three treatments can be used together in the rice ecosystem. The green manure and the fertilizer treatments had no effect on the algal flora of the soil.     

Patterns of algal recovery and small-scale effects of canopy removal as a result of human trampling on a Mediterranean rocky shallow community

The ecological importance of marine algae is widely known but in shallow coastal areas the composition and structure of algal communities may be affected by different human activities. Recovery from different trampling disturbances of two competing morphological groups (i.e. macroalgae and algal turfs) and effects of macroalgal canopy removal on the dominant associated fauna were examined using controlled trampling experiments. Six months after trampling disturbance was removed, the two morphological groups closely resembled control (untrampled) conditions, both in terms of cover and canopy (%). In particular, macroalgal recovery seemed to be very rapid: the higher the impact on the system the more rapid the recovery rate. In the short-term, the removal of macroalgal fronds (i.e. canopy) caused evident changes in invertebrate and crypto-benthic fish densities although these indirect effects were species-specific. Erect macroalgae are very sensitive to disturbance and even relatively low intensities of human use may be non-sustainable for this shallow assemblage. The present findings suggest some interesting options for the management of Mediterranean rocky shallow areas. This is crucial for coastal areas that are intended to be maintained in natural condition for conservation purposes.     

Soil properties, crop productivity and irrigation effects on five croplands of Inner Mongolia

In the Horqin Sand Land, more than half of the original pasture area has been converted to farmland over the last century. A field experiment was conducted from 2000 to 2001 on five croplands in the Horqin Sand Land of Inner Mongolia to examine differences in soil properties, crop productivity and irrigation effects across different soils in the region to assess their relative suitability for cultivation, in the face of continued pressure for conversion of these generally fragile, sandy soils to agriculture.Two irrigated croplands studied were originally sandy meadow (ISM) and sandy grassland (ISG), and three dry croplands were from sandy meadow (DSM), sandy grassland (DSG) and fixed sand dunes (DFD). Results showed that most measured properties of soils, and crop productivity, differed among the five croplands. The silt + clay fraction, bulk density, organic matter content, total N and P, available N and P, average soil moisture and temperature, plant height and aboveground biomass were as follows in the DSM|DSG|DFD soils: 51.1%|47.5%|24.3%; 1.44 g/cm³|1.49 g/cm³|1.58 g/cm³; 6.3 g/kg|4.6 g/kg|3.4 g/kg; 0.55 g/kg|0.33 g/kg|0.21 g/kg; 0.21 g/kg|0.17 g/kg|0.13 g/kg; 27.0 mg/kg|13.7 mg/kg|7.7 mg/kg; 2.9 mg/kg|2.9 mg/kg|3.0 mg/kg; 9.4%|7.0%|6.2%; 21.4 °C|21.7 °C|22.0 °C; 225 cm|220 cm|181 cm; and 2116 g/m²|1864 g/m²|1338 g/m². Corresponding values for ISM|ISG soils were: 54.3%|47.9%; 1.42 g/cm³|1.49 g/cm³; 8.5 g/kg|6.4 g/kg; 0.58 g/kg|0.42 g/kg; 0.20 g/kg|0.19 g/kg; 29.0 mg/kg|23.3 mg/kg; 4.7 mg/kg|7.9 mg/kg; 13.0%|10.1%; 21.0 °C|21.1 °C; 266 cm|245 cm; and 2958 g/m²|2702 g/m².In general, the ecological origin of a cropland was a stronger determinant of its current characteristics than was irrigation history, although irrigation was correlated with significantly increased organic matter content, some soil nutrient levels, and aboveground biomass productivity. Results indicate that fixed sand dunes should not be converted to cropland because of their very sandy and poorer soil, lower biomass productivity and greater wind-erosion risk. Although both the sandy meadow and sandy grassland may be reclaimed for farming, the cropland derived from the sandy meadow had higher resistance to wind erosion and higher crop productivity, so is somewhat more suitable than sandy grassland.     

Coppice management effects on experimentally established populations of three herbaceous layer woodland species

Traditional coppice management creates a temporal release of resources. We determined how this affected three herbaceous species (Cardamine pratensis, Primula elatior and Geum urbanum) and if it was suitable for their conservation within woodland given their differing phenologies and habitat affinities for woodland.Reproductive adults were transplanted and their fate, i.e. survival and counts of leafs and flowers, plus the fate of their progeny, were monitored for three years following cutting of coppice shoots (three light levels) or yearly autumn mowing.Cardamine pratensis and P. elatior produced more flowers with increasing light availability. Mowing increased flower and leaf production with time for P. elatior. Seedling numbers followed a similar trend. Geum urbanum initially produced more flowers with increasing light and when mown, but the effect disappeared and did not increase seedling numbers. Its basal leaves showed the opposite pattern. Population growth rates (λ), calculated for P. elatior and G. urbanum, confirmed the strong treatment effects on the former and the absence of effects on the latter. Yet, decomposition of treatment effects, showed considerable flexibility in life history of G. urbanum, except for contributions of fecundity. The latter, however, contributed most to positive effects on λ for P. elatior.Early flowering species with an affinity for open habitats (C. pratensis > P. elatior) benefited more from temporal resource release than the later flowering, typical woodland species. Coppice management thereby maintains both typical forest herbs and herbs with affinity for more open habitats. This is an important conservation tool especially in intensively managed landscapes.     

Fallow residue management effects on upland rice in three agroecological zones of West Africa

Improving fallow quality in upland rice-fallow rotations in West Africa through the site-specific use of leguminous cover crops has been shown to sustain the productivity of such systems. We studied the effects of a range of residue management practices (removal, burning, mulching and incorporation) on fallow biomass and N accumulation, on weed biomass and yield response of upland rice and on changes in soil physical and chemical characteristics in 2-year field trials conducted in three agroecological zones of Côte d'Ivoire. Across fallow management treatments and agroecological zones, rice yields were on average 20–30% higher in legume than in natural fallow plots. Weed biomass was highest in the savanna zone and lowest in the bimodal forest and tended to be less following a legume fallow. Regardless of the type of fallow vegetation and agroecological zone, biomass removal resulted in the lowest rice yields that varied from 0.5?t ha^–1 in the derived savanna zone to 1.5?t ha^–1 in the Guinea savanna zone. Burning of the fallow vegetation significantly increased yield over residue removal in the derived savanna (0.27?t ha^–1, P<0.05) and bimodal forest zones (0.27?t ha^–1, P<0.01), but not in the Guinea savanna. In both savanna environments, residue incorporation was superior to the farmers' practice of residue removal and rice yield increases were related to amounts of fallow N returned to the soil (r²=0.803, P<0.01). In the forest zone, the farmers' practice of residue burning produced the highest yield (1.43?t ha-1 in the case of legumes) and resulted in the lowest weed biomass (0.02?t ha^–1). Regardless of the site, improving the quality of the fallow or of its management had no significant effects on either soil physical or soil chemical characteristics after two fallow cycles. We conclude that incorporation of legume residues is a desirable practice for rice-based fallow rotation systems in savanna environments. No promising residue management alternatives to slash-and-burn were apparent for the forest zone. Determining the possible effects on soil productivity will require longer-term experiments.