Management of urban recreational woodlands: The case of Norway

A questionnaire was mailed to 351 forest supervisors in Norway about the condition and management of urban woodlands important for recreation. The overall respondense rate was 56% and included 29 large urban settlements (10,000 inhabitants) and 168 small urban settlements (200–9999 inhabitants), encompassing about 37% of the Norwegian population. The areas included in the survey cover 194,100 ha, i.e. 1.6% of the forested area. Urban woodlands were defined as the annually most frequently visited forest areas larger than 50 ha. The average size of urban woodlands was about 1000 ha, equal in large and small urban settlements. About 73% of the urban woodlands were closer than 500 m from settlements. The mean proportion of forest in the urban fringe was 40%. Like most forested land in Norway, urban woodlands were mainly privately owned. In large urban settlements the proportion of municipal forest was slightly higher than in small urban settlements. The distributions of forest stand age and tree species composition in urban woodlands did not deviate from the overall forest situation in the region. Silviculture and forest plans were prominent in urban woodlands around both large and small urban settlements, but special plans for recreation and conservation were equally rare. Recreational facilities and conflicts were most common in urban woodlands around large urban settlements. The effect of the recommendations on management of urban woodlands developed during the 1970s is questioned regarding the small differences between urban woodlands and the general forest situation, as well as between woodlands of large and small urban settlements. However, recreational efforts may have been more intensive in smaller neighbourhood woodlands of less than 50 ha, which were beyond the scope of this survey.     

Effects of recreational use on restored urban floodplain vegetation in urban areas

Urban river restorations focus on restoring aquatic and riparian habitats, increasing flood protection, and enhancing recreational potential. The increased recreational value such newly created urban green spaces is a key benefit of these measures as urban riparian areas are highly valued for recreation. However, high recreational pressure may contribute to the loss of natural vegetation and of biodiversity in restored riparian sites. This study investigates the impact of different recreational intensities and use types on the vegetation structure and vegetation quality by documenting direct (foot-traffic, breaking of branches, stems and roots) and indirect damages (litter and excrements). The major results are fourfold. First, while the proportion of some vegetation types can be correlated to the recreational intensity, neither recreation intensity nor recreation types enhanced the colonization success of invasive species. However, monitoring data showed that human-induced disturbances such as hydro-morphological changes favor alien plant establishment. Second, the study suggests a tipping point for pioneer vegetation at around a density of one user per 10 m river stretch. Already at lower user densities, pressure from trampling can slow down vegetation development. Third, the results indicate that users prefer urban greening and gravel bar elements rather than natural vegetation. Finally, while intensity of direct damages on the vegetation are weakly correlated with the user density, indirect damages increase with the user density. This study concluded that the identification of user hotspots would be helpful in developing a resilient restoration design, which in addition to information about the sensitive vegetation types in relation to recreational users and nature friendly recreational behavior could decrease vegetation damages. In particular, younger recreational users should be targeted by environmental protection campaigns.     

Balancing landscape-level forest management between recreation and wood production

Although many forested landscapes are used for both wood production and outdoor recreation, intensive forest management can negatively impact the recreational value of forests, including in Sweden, a country with rich forest resources and a strong forest industry. In Sweden, urbanization has increased the importance of, and demand for, urban and peri-urban recreational green areas such as forests. It is the responsibility of the local government – i.e., the municipalities – to provide a good living environment for its inhabitants, including recreational areas. However, most of the forest areas in Sweden are owned by private individuals and companies, which have a large degree of freedom in their forest management decisions. Municipalities can make formal agreements with forest owners to protect forests with high recreational values, but this requires financial resources, which are often scarce. Thus, tools are needed to identify the forest areas that should be prioritized for the use of forest management strategies that maintain or increase the recreational value of forests. In this study, we elaborate an approach that balances economic and recreational forest values within a forest decision support system (DSS) and test the approach for a case study area in southern Sweden. The recreation model included in the forest DSS links locational aspects, such as population density and proximity to water, with forest structure aspects, which are simulated over time under different management strategies. Our results suggest that the model could be useful for more efficient planning of the recreational potential of forests at the landscape level. The results from the case study indicate that substantial increases in the recreational value of a forest landscape can be achieved with relatively small overall economic losses, for example, by extending rotation periods in forests close to densely populated areas.     

Preferences of urban dwellers on urban forest recreational services in South Korea

This paper aims to investigate the preferences of urban dwellers for various attributes of urban forests, with an emphasis on forest recreational services. A choice experiment was conducted using face-to-face interviews with 823 urban dwellers in 2010. Urban forest attributes such as trails, slope, biodiversity, environmental education programs and entrance fees were found to influence Korean citizens’ preferences regarding urban forests. Among the six urban forest attributes, biodiversity was the most influential among Korean urban dwellers in their choice of urban forest recreation. Three latent groups with relatively homogeneous preferences over various urban forest attributes were identified. Residential area, family composition and the purpose of their visit determined group membership. It was notable that the preferences of urban forest recreationists differ from the general preferences of visitors to forests located in remote areas. Urban forest planning and management should consider the attributes of urban forests and the preferences of citizens visiting urban forests to improve urban dwellers’ welfare.     

Managing the potential for outdoor recreation: Adequate mapping and measuring of accessibility to urban recreational landscapes

Following the increasing public health concerns related to physical inactivity in the population, the relationship between outdoor recreation and public health has been increasingly acknowledged over the last decades. To improve public health, planners and policy-makers aim to provide good accessibility to recreational landscapes to facilitate outdoor recreational activity. At the same time, they are facing development pressure due to urban growth. In order for planners and policy-makers to secure people access to urban and near urban recreational areas, there is a need to map and measure access in a way that is adequate as a basis for decision-making in planning and design processes. Access is often defined as distance, or proximity, from residents’ homes to recreational areas. This paper explores different ways to map and measure distance to recreational areas, and aims to provide better decision support for planners and decision-makers. Moss municipality in Norway serves as a case study. We begin by addressing the meaning of the term ‘recreational landscape’ and how the choice of definition affects the results when mapping recreational areas. We also discuss who we are measuring distance for, and how different user groups will have different thresholds or critical distances affecting their frequency of visits to a recreational area. Last, we explore different methods for measuring distance within a GIS environment. The paper shows how the purpose of the analysis must be decisive when defining recreational landscapes and choosing methods for measuring access to recreational landscape, in order to provide valuable input to planners and policy-makers aiming at enhancing the possibility for outdoor recreation for people.     

Urban woodland management – The case of 13 major Nordic cities

A postal questionnaire survey about the forest situation and management in urban woodland was carried out around the three largest urban agglomerations in each of the five Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Twenty estate managements responded, giving a respondent rate of 54%. Our material from 13 cities includes 108,888 ha productive forests, representing approximately 13% of all urban woodland areas in the Nordic region. The tree species composition in the urban woodland areas largely reflected the typical tree species distribution in the respective vegetation zones. It is expected that the percentage of Fagus sylvatica and Quercus spp. in the nemoral zone, and boreal hardwoods will increase in the future. The proportion of young and middle-aged forests is high in all urban woodlands, despite the focus on old forests in urban woodland management policy and research since the 1970s. Current silvicultural systems belonging to even-aged forestry prevail in most cities. However, the use of clear-cutting has decreased over the last 30 years. A conservative felling policy makes it likely that the proportion of old stands will increase. Various restrictions on forest management are briefly discussed. Reasons for changes in silvicultural practices differ from city to city, but recreation and conservation are most commonly reported.     

Recreational mapping and planning for enlargement of the green structure in greater Copenhagen

Since 1947, the development of greater Copenhagen has followed a plan that divided the city into a centre and five urban ‘fingers’. The ‘Finger Plan’ has constituted an important part of the planning framework, albeit informally. Under this plan, four green wedges and three green rings, located between the urban ‘fingers’, form a multifunctional recreational landscape of high value to the citizens. In 2006, the Greater Copenhagen Authority put forward a proposal for the enlargement of the existing green wedges and the addition of a new fourth green ring. In order to achieve this plan, detailed mapping of recreational opportunities was needed. Based on existing planning approaches combined with theoretical and empirical studies on preferences, use, and composition of green spaces, a method for monitoring and analyzing recreational experiences using seven specific categories was adapted and further developed to Danish conditions and applied to land use categories in greater Copenhagen. Areas that comprised one or more recreational experience values were designated by use of GIS techniques and map-based indicators for each of the seven ‘experience classes’ (wilderness; feeling of the forest; panoramic views, water, and scenery; biodiversity and land form; cultural history; activity and challenge; service and gathering). For incorporation into the regional and municipal planning policy, the seven experience classes were transformed into GIS, creating a decision support system for use at municipal and regional levels in order to facilitate future planning of the recreational landscape in greater Copenhagen. The method proved capable of pointing out important areas for recreational development in the enlarged but not yet developed areas. Further, the division of the recreational potential into seven classes makes possible site-specific development that utilizes existing potential.     

Diversity in mind: Towards a differentiated understanding of migrants’ recreational practices in urban forests

This paper presents results of a study investigating the relationship between migration and recreation in urban forests in two German cities. Research in this field is growing in Europe, yet in certain countries, such as Germany, it remains underdeveloped. Until now, it has revealed ambiguities and diverging results. Furthermore, it has been the subject of criticism and calls for more differentiation between and within migrant groups, as well as for more reflection on the categorisation of “migrant” or “ethnic group”. This paper builds on these claims and aims to shed new light on forest recreation and ethnicity through a context-sensitive research approach in the tradition of symbolic interactionism. It draws upon the analysis of 42 qualitative interviews conducted with people with a Turkish, Russian-German and no migration background. The analysis leads to the construction of five narratives, each of them regrouping respondents who share a similar perspective on a specific theme. The narratives show how personal life context and its interlinkages with migration influence the individual's perspectives on and uses of urban forest. They also show how lifestyle and gender shape recreational practices independently from migration background. Beyond the focus on individual experience, collective recreational practices attributed to some groups are expressed in the narratives. This paper addresses the social aspect of leisure and discusses how forest recreation affects the social construction of groups such as migrant groups.     

The impact of habitat characteristics on bird presence and the implications for wildlife management in the environs of Ottawa,Canada

Urban forestry is increasingly vital for both wildlife conservation and human use, despite frequent conflicts between these functions. A fundamental task in urban habitat and recreation forestry is the identification of those habitat characteristics important for animal species and the evaluation of these within the geographies of human presence, urban proximity and land cover variation and change. This paper examines the habitat characteristics for birds in urban built, green and greenbelt areas of Ottawa, Canada, and an area of continuous Ontario forest, to determine the effects of vegetation density and patch size, and human presence on bird presence. Bird presence was measured by point counts, and land cover was mapped using field observation and aerial photographs (1955 and 1999). At the species level, the pre-dominantly forest birds were affected by human presence and were primarily associated with tree stands in the greenbelt and continuous forest. In dense urban areas there were larger numbers of a few ‘generalist’ species. Both forested and urban (residential/commercial) environments increased in area between 1955 and 1999, creating the two types of land cover favouring the largest number of birds, while the less habituated grass/farmed areas declined in area. More informed bird conservation and recreation management will depend on paying greater attention to vegetation cover combinations with urban development.     

Openness as a key-variable for analysis of management trade-offs in urban woodlands

There is currently increasing pressure on urban woodland in industrialised countries. Management of such areas is shifting towards multiple-use with focus on both recreation and biodiversity conservation. We examined the concept of “openness” as part of a possible tool for planners and decision makers. Our field studies were conducted in oak-dominated urban woodlands in southern Sweden with the focus on understory density. In a field experiment we found that understory density was greatly influenced by management, but effects appeared to be site-dependent. Photographs from the field sites were shown to panels of students to analyse recreational preferences in relation to openness. The photographs showed similar woodland types but with different understory density, although the quantification of this variation was not revealed to the participants. In general, open forests were considered most attractive for recreation but 74% of the respondents claimed that they preferred a mix of open and closed forest. Frequent forest visitors preferred relatively closed forests but infrequent visitors liked more open forests. As an example of management effects on biodiversity, we examined the density and diversity of woodland birds in relation to the management. We found that bird densities decreased in the plots with extensive removal of understory. We suggest that variables related to openness can be used in the planning process, especially at fine-grained scales, to analyse different management options and make trade-offs between interests in multiple-use woodland sites.     

Recreational tree-climbing programs in a rural Japanese community forest: Social impacts and “fun factors”

We examined whether recreational tree climbing (TC) activities would have positive social impacts and rejuvenate an outdoor activity center and surrounding community forest in central Japan. Our case study comprised 3800 adults and children participating in TC activities at the Jyokoji Outdoor Activity Center (JOAC) in Seto, Japan. We focused on 1393 adult participants whom we considered to be the decision makers regarding family recreation, and we explored both the social impacts of TC and various factors that contributed to and distracted from the overall experience. Qualitative and quantitative data indicated that elements such as age, gender, tree preferences, tree appreciation, tree education, and technical instruction influenced the enjoyment of recreational TC and the positive effects on tree climbers. Overall, the climbing program had positive social impacts for the community forest and contributed to local conservation initiatives. Our case study suggests that other areas can benefit from incorporating TC programs into community forest planning to complement aesthetic, ecological, and restoration benefits and provide a new venue for recreation and conservation awareness.     

Public acceptance of restrictions imposed on recreational activities in the peri-urban Nature Reserve Sihlwald, Switzerland

The peri-urban Nature Reserve Sihlwald is an important part of the recreational green belt in the vicinity of the city of Zürich (Switzerland). This contribution is an inquiry of the reaction of forest users towards restrictions that will be imposed on past time activities in the future. A research method developed in social psychology (Theory of Planned Behaviour) is applied to test whether behaviour intentions with regard to imposed restrictions are adhered to by the visitors or not, and how this is to be explained. The acceptance of various past time activities between different forest user groups is looked at in order to predict conflicts and achieve adequate regulations well in advance. The empirical results of applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour model favour a support of collective self-obligation among user groups to increase the acceptance of restrictions in the Nature Reserve Sihlwald.     

Urban forests as compensation measures for infrastructure development

Sustainable development requires, among other things, that development projects not result in the degradation of natural resources for outdoor recreation. There has been a rapid increase in knowledge regarding the importance of the external environment to our health and well-being. Stress is reduced significantly when people are exposed to health-promoting nature and landscape values. Many people are actively choosing to reduce their stress. Doctors today prescribe outdoor walks in peaceful environments for the same purpose. A high level of traffic noise increases stress. This paper discusses the application of silent values in an infrastructure development project, the extension of Sturup Airport, east of Malmö, Sweden and Copenhagen, Denmark. Through estimating the change in noise resulting from the development, it is possible to integrate mitigating and compensating measures in the planning process discussions. Such measures can be negotiated as conditions for authorization of the project. The airport is situated in an area rich in nature values for recreation. The airport expansion will mean both new noise impacting "silent" areas and increasing noise levels in already noise-affected areas. In this study, we have taken a positive stand on the silent areas, mostly agriculture land, where compensation measures could be taken, thus balancing the loss of silent nature values for recreation. Silent areas that will not be affected are suitable and feassible for compensation measures thus can be called compensation areas. In this way the development of new recreational areas, preferably designed as urban forests, are critical preconditions for the negotiations for the airport extension. The conclusion is that urban forest investments for health and well-being can be an important part of strategic decisions in spatial planning. As preconditions for a permit, the development and financing of new urban forests and green areas can be part of the total development plan. This is an issue of global interest, as many countries are in a process of rapid urbanization, and urban greening and urban forestry have an important role to play in the process of promoting quality of life and improving environmental quality.     

Landscape perception and recreation needs in urban green space in Fuyang,Hangzhou, China

This study analyzes the landscape characteristics and the residents’ recreational activities in the urban green spaces in Fuyang, Hangzhou, China. It explores the correlation of the desire to be in close proximity to urban green space to engage in recreational activities (the need for recreation) related to residents’ demographic and socio-economic factors: gender, education, monthly income and dwelling location. Residents’ preferences for landscape elements and attributes of urban green space are examined using principal components analysis. In addition, regression analysis identifies that coherence and vegetation are the most relevant factors correlated with perceived overall recreational appropriateness of the three most frequently visited urban parks. The purpose of the study is to attempt to quantify people's recreation needs in urban green space; identify the landscape components in urban green space which can encourage more outdoor visits and/or greater recreational activities; and provide proposals and strategies on planning, management and conservation for recreation-oriented urban green space which will enhance people's enjoyment and wellbeing by improving landscape esthetic quality, recreational and ecological function.     

Access to green areas and the frequency of visits – A case study in Helsinki

Environmental considerations concerning physical activity and health relate to accessibility, and this accessibility is directly influenced by how recreation areas and facilities are provided and managed. This study aims to provide some evidence to support the general argument that a good supply of recreation opportunities encourages people's participation in outdoor recreation. The study's data are compiled from an outdoor recreation survey of Finnish 15- to 74-year olds, conducted between 1998 and 2000, which focused on the recreational behaviour of people living in Helsinki (n=367), and their visits to close-to-home outdoor recreation areas. Almost all (97%) of the Helsinki residents surveyed participated in outdoor recreation during the year. Half of them embarked on a recreational outing daily or every other day. The most typical close-to-home activity was walking for pleasure or fitness. Other popular activities were cycling, jogging, dog walking and outings with children. Physical or fitness activities represented about 90% of all close-to-home outings. Those who lived in the suburbs of Helsinki participated in close-to-home recreation significantly more often than those living in the city centre, and had done so more recently in terms of when the survey was conducted. The amount of green areas in the vicinity of the participant's residence and the short distance to green areas suitable for recreational use increased the number of close-to-home outings among Helsinki residents. This supports the argument that a good provision of opportunities promotes an active lifestyle. Thus, recreation areas and facilities should be located close to residential areas, and provide safe, comfortable and year-round access for daily outings.     

Outdoor recreation in forest policy and legislation: A European comparison

The benefits of outdoor recreation and the need for recreation inventories and monitoring are described in various policy and legislation documents at the European level. The objective of this paper is to analyse how these recreational aspects are reflected at the national level in core forest policy and legislation documents as well as related domains. The COST Action E33 network was used to extract information about national policies and monitoring practices for international comparison, using the Delphi method. The results provide insights into national policy setting and legislation in the field of outdoor recreation, and reveal similarities, differences, gaps and future needs. Among the main findings is a contradiction between the expressed political importance of outdoor recreation at the national level, and the absence of binding commitments for action. The majority of the countries surveyed recognise and express outdoor recreation in some form of political and/or legislative way. However, recreation monitoring or measurements are rarely mentioned in relevant policies or acts at the national, regional or local level, perhaps due to a lack of political will or resources. The analysis indicates that a consistent forest recreation monitoring system, linked to sustainable forest management, as described for example in the Helsinki process, should be better transferred into national policy and legislation. Comparable data across Europe could then provide a sound base for making decisions on outdoor recreation policy, planning and management, and furthermore provide a basis for the detection of societal changes and demands over time.     

Users’ recreation choices and setting preferences for trails in urban forests in Nanjing,China

With increased demand for outdoor recreational spaces, it is imperative to understand the experience of recreational hikers. This study explored users’ recreation choices and behavior-based setting preferences for certain trails in one forest park. Using on-site intercept surveys, a total of 1019 samples were collected from users of hiking trails and greenways in Purple Mountain Forest Park, Nanjing, China. The results from multiple regressions revealed that visitors’ recreation choices for trail settings, companions, and activities were associated with personal attributes, usage patterns, visitor motivations, and their preferences for the trail’s landscape attributes. The findings provide insights for the design and maintenance of trail settings in forest parks to satisfy the needs of various recreational hikers.     

Map and determinants of woodlands visiting in Wallonia

The Walloon forest taken as a whole can be regarded as typical of a rural area, although its proximity to densely populated areas gives it a peri-urban character. It is visited by the local population as well as by tourists (including from neighboring countries). To provide spatial information on the level of Wallonia woodland visitation, a survey was conducted among managers of Forest Service districts (also called “cantonnements”). The aim was to map the woodlands to show spatial patterns of visitation levels, and analyze them qualitatively to determine the influence factors. This map identifies regional hubs of recreation woodlands and, conversely, areas where the recreational function is much less important. The level of visitation was scaled in four levels ranging from low to very high. The mapping was supplemented with a statistical analysis of data collected from the forest managers and also from different GIS-layers (slope, hydrology, land use, etc.). An equation using the level of visitation as a dependent variable was fitted to a set of characteristics of the woodland with an ordered Logit model. The results show that type of ownership, type of forest, and recreational facilities significantly influence the level of woodland visitation. They also show that woodland visitors prefer any type of forest to mainly coniferous woodland. These results and the analysis of the map are particularly useful for developing forest policy and tourism as well as managing the forest.     

The utility of ancient forest indicator species in urban environments: A case study from Poznań, Poland

We aimed to assess the impact of land-use structure on AFIS occurrence and evaluation of these bioindicators in urban conditions. We compiled data about forest continuity based on archival maps and forest management plans; floristic records of 79 AFIS occurrences were collected within a 1 × 1 km grid and land-use form structure in Poznań (W Poland). We tested fidelity of AFIS using χ² tests and effects of land-use structure using random forest models. We also checked spatial autocorrelation and its impact on AFIS distribution patterns within old and recent forests, using spatially explicit generalized linear models. We found a strong relationship between AFIS number per grid square and fraction of forests and waters in land-use structure. Relationships between AFIS distribution and land-use shows that AFIS are a good proxy describing human impact or an urbanity gradient. AFIS number per grid square shows small, but significant positive spatial autocorrelation, which suggests possibilities of migration into new forests. AFIS, treated as a bioindicative group of species, may be a useful indicator of landscape and land-use structure transformation in urban environments. Occurrence of many AFIS that are endangered at the city scale indicates the need for conservation of old forests in urban areas, to preserve biodiversity in urban environments. Thus, AFIS may act as indicators of old forests with high conservation value in cities, which need special protection.     

Forest conservation and land development in Puerto Rico

In the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico, rapid land-use changes over the past century have included recent land-cover conversion to urban/built-up lands. Observations of this land development adjacent to reserves or replacing dense forest call into question how the changes relate to forests or reserved lands. Using existing maps, this study first summarizes island-wide land-cover change between 1977-78 and 1991-92. Then, using binomial logit modeling, it seeks evidence that simple forest cover attributes, reserve locations, or existing land cover influence land development locations. Finally, this study quantifies land development, reserve protection and forest cover by ecological zone. Results indicate that 1) pasture is more likely to undergo land development than shrubland plus forest with low canopy density, 2) forest condition and conservation status appear unimportant in that development locations neither distinguish between classes of forest canopy development nor relate to forest patch size or reserve proximity, and 3) most land development occurs in the least-protected ecological zones. Outside the boundaries of strictly protected forest and other reserves, accessibility, proximity to existing urban areas, and perhaps desirable natural settings, serve to increase land development. Over the coming century, opportunities to address ecological zone gaps in the islands forest reserve system could be lost more rapidly in lowland ecological zones, which are relatively unprotected.This revised version was published online in May 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.