Stand structure and dynamics of four native Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) woodlands in northern Scotland

Stands in four native pinewoods (Glenmore, Black Wood of Rannoch,Glen Garry and Glen Affric) dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestrisL.) with contrasting management histories and climates wereassessed for differences in age, structure and dynamics. Treeage, height, diameter at breast height (d.b.h.), basal area,stem density and x, y coordinates were used to compare the recruitmentof trees (>1.3 m height, >7 cm d.b.h.), saplings (>1.3m height, <7 cm d.b.h.) and seedlings (<1.3 m) followingdisturbance events and protection from browsing. There was a20-year lag between localized intensive cultivation and treerecruitment on sites that were protected from deer browsing(Glenmore and Glen Garry). Recruitment was low in sites withdisturbance but no protection (Black Wood of Rannoch). The oldestpopulation, Glen Affric, showed signs of initial intense recruitmentfollowed by a long period of nil recruitment. Abundant standingdead trees were recorded only in Glen Affric, and prolific birchand rowan only in Glen Garry. Managers should consider localizedintense cultivation in conjunction with a complete reductionin browsing pressure for rapid seedling recruitment and increasedstructural diversity.     

The lichens of the Scottish native pinewoods

During the last 30 years, 434 epiphytic lichen taxa have beenrecorded from the native pinewoods of Scotland. Of these lichens,about 219 have been recorded from the bark, lignum or stumpsof pine (Pinus sylvestris) itself. Eighteen species are, inthe British Isles, confined to these native pinewoods, whichare themselves confined to the Scottish Highlands. A resumeis presented of the habitats and niches available to lichensin the native pinewoods, using examples of the most characteristicspecies for each. The ‘pinewood habitat’ for epiphyticlichens is by no means restricted to pine, but also includesassociated trees, shrubs and subshrubs, especially birch, rowan,holly, aspen, juniper and heather. The strong east–westvariation in the composition of the lichen flora is outlined.By comparison of species lists from pinewood stands of knownancientness with those from mature plantations distant fromthe ‘core’ pinewoods, an additional c. 60 speciescan be considered as indicative of an ecological continuityof the pinewood habitat. From this pool of c. 77 species, aNative Pinewood Index of Ecological Continuity is presentedas a useful tool for biodiversity assessments of pinewoods.     

Recent pine woodland dynamics in east Glen Affric, northern Scotland, from highly resolved palaeoecological analyses

Glen Affric, a National Nature Reserve of international conservationimportance for plant and animal communities associated withScots pine (Pinus sylvestris) woodland is managed for natureconservation and woodland restoration at a landscape scale.Management plans have drawn on information on current standstructure and variation but have not used in any detailed waythe analyses of past tree population changes from sources, suchas pollen analyses. This paper reports the results of pollenanalyses from three small peat hollows at the head of Loch Beinna' Mheadhoin. The analyses demonstrate, first, that woods inthe east of the reserve several centuries ago were differentin species composition and were more varied than they are todayand, second, that the currently patchy Pinus wood in the westof the reserve, at the head of Loch Beinn a' Mheadhoin, is theresult of recent spread westward onto former heathland. Thistemporal and spatial variability in the recent past has implicationsfor the future management of the woods because future woodsmay not develop with the characteristics of the current stands,and may not be stable over time.     

Exploring for senescence signals in native scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in the Scottish Highlands

The main aim of this project was to explore whether the pine trees in Glen Affric (GAF), one of the more extensive pine woodlands in the northern Scottish Highlands, are, on average, reaching a senescent stage which could ultimately be detrimental to the sustainability of the pine woodland in this region under present management conditions. This aim was realized by (1) comparing the mean stand age of the GAF trees to other pine woodlands around Scotland, (2) exploring whether there was a significant pre-death trend in ring-width series from naturally dead trees and (3) assessing whether a notable change in response of tree growth to climate was noted as a function of age which could indicate that trees were entering a state of senescence.     

Effects of Fencing and Ground Preparation on Natural Regeneration of Native Pinewood over 12 years in Glen Tanar, Aberdeenshire

An enumeration was carried out in 1989 to assess the effectsof fencing and ground treatment 11 years previously on survivaland growth of naturally disseminated Scots pine seedlings inthe native pinewood at Glen Tanar, Aberdeenshire. Results showeda significant difference between unfenced and fenced plots onpine seedling density and height in 1989. Initial effects ofseedbed treatment on Scots pine seedling density, 2 years afterthe experiment began had largely disappeared by 1989. If removalof ground cover is used to enhance pine seed germination, theexposed seedlings may need to be protected from browsing byfencing. Received 19 March 1990.     

Morphological and physiological differences in Scots pine seedlings of six seed origins

One-year-old seedlings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) offour native seed origins (Loch Maree Islands, Glengarry/GlenMorriston, Glen Affric and Abernethy), a commercial Britishseedlot, and a seedlot from Hedesunda, in middle Sweden, werecompared at monthly intervals from October 1993 to April 1994.Seedling morphology, root condition, root frost hardiness andbud dry matter were determined at each date. There were clear morphological differences among seed origins.Seedlings raised from the commercial seedlot (A70) were largerbut had a poorer root:shoot ratio than the other seed origins.Of the native pines tested, the Loch Maree Islands origin allocateda larger proportion of its photosynthate to fine roots and needlesand smaller proportion to woody structures. Seedlings raised from the commercial British seedlot tendedto have poorer bud lignification than the other origins andalso, in autumn, higher electrolyte leakage rates from its fineroots. During winter, the Swedish origin had the lowest fineroot electrolyte leakage. Seedlings of all origins showed aprogressive increase in fine root hardiness towards mid-winterwith maximum hardiness (–7°C) in January. Dehardeningoccurred over subsequent months reaching –3°C in April.Differences among origins were evident. The Swedish seedlotdeveloped greater frost resistance than the other origins, hardeningbegan earlier in autumn and dehardening began later in spring.The commercial seedlot hardened later than the other originsbut reached a similar level of frost hardiness by January. Ofthe native pines, seedlings of the Loch Maree Islands originwere slowest to develop root hardiness.     

Ecology, history and silviculture of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in western Norway - a literature review

Results from a literature review on pinewood ecology, silviculture,genetics, aspects of history and forest resources of Scots pine(Pinus sylvestris L.) in western Norway are presented. The pinewoodscover 40 per cent of the forested land, 0.31 million ha. Duringthe last 75 years, the area has increased by 17 per cent andthe growing stock has risen from 10 to 34 million m³. The impactof man in previous times was very marked, and has had a significantinfluence on the present forest conditions. The pronounced climaticgradients mixed with the topographic variation – fromthe coastal plains via the fjord systems to the high mountains– is reflected in rather steep gradients in the pine forestvegetation. Various floristic elements can be distinguished,from oceanic via the suboceanic in the outer islands to thethermophytic, boreonemoral and boreal elements in the innerfjord districts and valleys. The introduction of spruce (Piceaspp.) plantations on 10–15 per cent of former native pineforests has not negatively affected the bird fauna at the landscapescale. Although not particular species rich, the pine forestsharbour species usually not found in other forest types. Sofar, most work in the field of silviculture and forest ecologyin the pinewoods of West Norway has been in the form of casestudies. Implications of the results for forestry in the regionare briefly discussed.     

History of Peridermium Stem Rust of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Thetford Forest, East Anglia

‘Peridermium’ stem rust (Peridermium pini (Pers.)Lev.) has been present in Thetford forest for at least 40 years,but has only become a major problem during the last decade.Survey data are presented which show that there has been a dramaticincrease in the disease in crops of Scots pine between 1964,when with less than one per cent of the trees showed symptoms,and 1979, when the figure was 10 per cent. The disease has apparentlyspread outwards from a central focus in the middle of the forest.In four plots the proportion of trees with visible symptomshas increased in five years from an average of 28 per cent to46 per cent. However, only 1–2 per cent of the trees havedied annually, and it appears that many trees with ‘deadtops’ may survive for long periods. The situation in Thetfordseems to contrast with that in north-east Scotland, where limiteddata suggest there has been no appreciable increase in diseaseincidence during recent years. There are only two records ofthe disease on Corsican pine (P. nigra var. maritima (Ait.)Melville) in Thetford.     

Long-term woodland dynamics in West Glen Affric, northern Scotland

The former woodlands west of Loch Affric are described frompollen analyses. Related records of climate change from theanalysis of lake-level change and peat growth are also presentedto explore the importance of climate in driving woodland change.The woodlands were more diverse than extant pinewoods to theeast, with a very considerable deciduous component. They developedin the early Holocene period, and brief periods of range expansionand contraction are recorded within a pattern of overall woodlandstability over thousands of years, despite the high frequencyand intensity of climatic excursions, until a final collapsein all woodland communities occurred at around 4000 calibratedyears ago (BP). This collapse had a climatic origin, but theprecise character of the climate change is ill-defined.     

An Analysis of Peridermium Stem Rust of Scots Pine in Thetford Forest in 1984 and 1985

The status of stem rust (Peridermium pini or (Pers.) Lev.) inScots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in the central block of Thetfordforest, East Anglia was determined by means of detailed analysisof freshly felled trees. A total of 935 trees was examined,these comprising c. 100 from each of nine compartments plantedbetween 1922 and 1933. Lesions in all stages of development were found; from thosein their first year of sporulation on young twigs to those whichhad been established for many years on the trunk and main branches.Death of cambium occurred typically on lesions on shoots thatwere more than five years of age. Downward growth of the funguswas estimated to average between 4.7 and 5.6 cm per year, whenbased on the length of sporulating tissue on young twigs, and6.3 cm per year when based on cambial killing in trunk lesions.The average rate of circumferential killing of trunk lesionsaveraged 4.3 crn per year (i.e. 2.2 cm in each direction). Therewas no evidence that wounds provided a significant infectioncourt. A strong association was found between the presence of the ‘purplemould’ (Tuberculina maxima) and an absence of sporulationby the rust fungus. However, there was no evidence for lesioninactivation by T. maxima. Data are presented on the distribution of disease between sitesand between trees. Five per cent of the total sample of treeswere dead and an additional 12 per cent had crown symptoms associatedwith girdling trunk lesions. Among the 775 trees with predominantlyhealthy crowns, it is estimated that 9 per cent would have diedwithin 5 years, 15 per cent within 10 years and 22 per centwithin 20 years. By contrast 66 per cent had no disease at all,probably for genetic reasons. It is concluded that, althoughthe disease situation is serious, there is no requirement fora major change to be made in the felling programme for the pre-warScots pine in Thetford.     

Bird community responses to a gradient of site preparation intensities in pine plantations in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina

Although intensively managed pine forests are common in the southeastern US, few studies describe how combinations of mechanical (MSP) and chemical site preparation (CSP) and herbaceous weed control (HWC) techniques affect bird communities that use early successional habitats within young pine forests. Therefore, we examined effects of six treatments of increasing management intensity via combinations of MSP (strip-shear and wide spacing or roller chop and narrow spacing) and CSP (application or no application) treatments with banded or broadcast HWC on bird communities in six loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, USA, for 8 years following site preparation. Wide pine spacing and strip-shear MSP increased bird abundance and species richness over narrow spacing and chopped MSP for 6 years after planting. Chemical SP reduced bird abundance in year 2, increased bird abundance in year 6, had no effect on abundance after year 7, and did not affect species richness in any year. Total bird abundance and species richness were similar between banded and broadcast HWC. Site preparation and HWC had no effect on bird diversity and bird communities were most similar in treatments of similar intensity. Site preparation and HWC had few or no effects on birds based upon migratory status, habitat association, or conservation value. The addition of chemical site preparation or HWC had little effect on birds beyond pine spacing, and bird abundance was not proportional to management intensity. Although we observed treatment effects, all treatments provided habitat used by a variety of bird species, and pine plantations may play an increasingly important role in bird conservation as forests become fragmented and converted to other land uses and as natural processes that create early successional habitat, such as fire, are suppressed.     

Estimating the non-market costs and benefits of native woodland restoration using the contingent valuation method

The restoration of native forests is an important priority forforestry and conservation organizations in the United Kingdom.The economic case for public sector support for native woodlandrestoration in the United Kingdom rests almost entirely on theprovision of non-market benefits related to wildlife, landscapeand recreational opportunities. This paper describes a discretechoice contingent valuation (CV) to estimate the value of thenon-market benefits of restoring two native pinewood forestsin Affric and Strathspey. If only the willingness to pay (WTP)of those who supported the restoration plan was considered,the average benefit estimate per household was £35 forAffric and £53 for Strathspey. When the compensation requiredby a small proportion of respondents who preferred the currentmoorland landscape, was estimated mean WTP was unchanged forAffric, but fell to £24 for Strathspey. The study highlightsthe need to take account of non-market benefits and costs whenevaluating land use change, otherwise benefits may be overestimatedand there is a possibility that the wrong projects will be selected.The sensitivity of CV values to the scope of the environmentalchange are also investigated and the issue of embedding discussed.     

松材线虫病病程特征变化的研究

为提高从松树病死木上取样分离松材线虫的检出率,及时、准确诊断疫木和疫点,根据病害的外部症状,把松材线虫病发病过程分为四个阶段,对各阶段的松材线虫分布、松褐天牛发生情况、含水率的变化、木材蓝变情况等特征进行研究。结果表明：病死木上松材线虫的分布由多到少为：发病前期上部>中部>下部,后期上部<中部<下部,松材线虫的数量与松褐天牛老熟幼虫的数量呈正相关,最佳的取样阶段为第Ⅱ和第Ⅲ阶段靠上部稍段取样,第Ⅳ阶段偏下部取样。     

Testing prescribed fire as a tool to promote Scots pine <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> regeneration

Techniques for encouraging natural tree regeneration are of increasing interest to managers of Scots pine Pinus sylvestris forests. We tested prescribed fire at a management scale, with deer present or excluded, as a means of increasing rates of Scots pine forest expansion on heathland. At a semi-natural pinewood in Scotland, ten experimental blocks were established, within range of pine seed-fall. Each block comprised four, 100 m² plots. Two plots at each site were burnt and two fenced, allowing the effects of burning on pine regeneration to be measured at two levels of deer abundance. We monitored pine seedlings, seed-fall, deer dung and vegetation for 5 years following treatment. Differences in seedling detection rates between treatments were quantified using dummy seedlings, and analyses corrected accordingly. Mean new pine seedling establishment was 9.8 times higher on burnt ground than unburnt ground (confidence intervals 3.2–30). Differences were even more pronounced in a year of high seed-fall, and following fires with low rates of spread. Establishment rates varied strongly between experimental blocks. Exclusion of deer increased establishment rates, but only in the first 2 years after fire. There was evidence that both seedling survival, and cumulative recruitment of older (over 12 months) seedlings, were improved by prescribed burning. Our results support the use of prescribed fire as a tool to promote increased Scots pine seedling establishment. This technique is likely to give strong fine-scale variation in seedling densities, and so would most suit areas where a variable spatial pattern of regeneration is sought, for landscape or naturalness reasons. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

上虞市松材线虫病综合防治与思考

上虞市自2004年发生松材线虫病以来积极采取各种防治措施,包括枯死松树全面清理下山,疫木经热处理生产工艺进行除害处理和安全利用,实施松材线虫病除治林相改造工程,挂诱捕器、设饵木消杀松墨天牛等。几年下来除治效果显现,松材线虫病已得到有效控制。     

Diversifying native pinewoods using artificial regeneration

Little is known about broadleaf establishment within the nativepinewoods of Scotland, yet such information is critical to currentrestoration initiatives. A 2-year field trial was set up toassess the growth and performance of seedlings of four broadleavedspecies within different developmental stages of Pinus sylvestris(Scots pine) woodland in the Scottish Highlands. The developmentalstages included stem initiation (establishment stage), stemexclusion (thicket/pole stage) and canopy break up (old-growthcanopy), providing sites of varying shade and resource availability.It was predicted that differences in establishment between siteswould occur due to species-specific differences in ‘tolerance’of shade, low-nutrient availability and poor soil drainage.Analysis of trial results showed high survival but growth rates(relative stem height and basal diameter growth) declined rapidlyin year two. In year two, Ilex aquifolium achieved the highestmean growth rates in the stem exclusion stands (average 15 percent light) where there was a lower percentage of Phytomyzailicis (holly leaf miner) infection and frost damage. Sorbusaucuparia exhibited generalist behaviour with similar growthand performance across all stand treatments. Betula pubescensmaintained similar growth rates across stand types but was moresusceptible to insect damage in deeper shade. Overall, Alnusglutinosa grew more successfully than the other species andachieved highest mean growth rates in canopy break up (average44 per cent light) and stand initiation (average 71 per centlight) stages. Broadleaf establishment within pinewood standsis challenging on account of acidic nutrient-poor soil regimes,and in places, poor drainage, aggressive understorey competitionand canopies that restrict light availability and insect herbivory.Forest restoration techniques, including matching species tosite, accelerating establishment and using framework species(individuals of high field performance that are able to restoresite productivity and nutrient cycles), are discussed.     

松材线虫病的诊断方法探讨

控制松材线虫病的关键是及时诊断疑似疫木、疫点,既能采用有效、简单、易行的方法进行诊断,且能有的放矢地进行诊断。文章根据广东省松材线虫病疫区的特点,对林间枯死松树外观症状诊断法、林间枯死松树体内线虫的分离鉴定法和松褐天牛引诱剂辅助诊断法等3种松材线虫病的诊断方法及其适应范固进行探讨。     

Influence of nurse birch and Scots pine seedlings on early aerial development of European beech seedlings in an open-field plantation of Central France

Beech woodland can be restored by direct planting of beech (Fagussylvatica L.) seedlings in abandoned areas, but this methodis generally avoided in forestry because of the growth difficultiesof beech in full-light conditions. This study tested a methodthat consists of planting beech seedlings in full-light conditionswith silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) or Scots pine (Pinussylvestris L.) as nurse trees. A total of 65 two-year-old beechseedlings surrounded by either 3, 4, 5 or 6 pine or birch seedlingsor without competitors were planted in bare-soil open-fieldconditions in Central France. Tree growth and light availabilitywere monitored at the end of each of the following 3 years,and soil moisture was also measured the last year. At the endof the experiment, aerial biomass measurements were made onthe beeches. Results showed that relative beech growth in termsof diameter was significantly reduced by the local neighbouringtrees and that this reduction was particularly noticeable inthe pine treatments where there was extensive pine seedlingdevelopment. In contrast, relative beech height did not exhibitany significant variations among the treatments. Light availabilitywas decreased by the neighbouring trees, especially in the pinetreatments. Light reduction was more pronounced in the last2 years and in the middle or lower parts of the canopy of thesubject beech. Soil water content was lower under the pine canopiesthan under the birch canopies, and was positively correlatedto beech relative diameter growth. Specific leaf area, height-to-diameterratio and crown length-to-crown width ratio weakly but significantlyincreased with competition from the neighbours. Beech biomasspartitioning was only weakly affected by the treatments. Thisstudy showed that nurse trees tend to reduce beech growth butimprove form although effects remained weak due to the insufficientlength of the experiment. Further studies are also needed toquantify the effects of the neighbourhood on the growth of competitiveherbaceous vegetation and on changes in the microclimatic conditions.     

Long-term effect of different planting proportions on forest landscape in Great Xing’an Mountains, Northeast China after the catastrophic fire in 1987

A landscape model (LANDIS) was used to study the long-term forest dynamics under five planting types (100% larch (P₁); 70% larch and 30% Mongolian Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica) (P₂); 50% larch and 50% Mongolian Scotch pine (P₃); 30% larch and 70% Mongolian Scotch pine (P₄); 100% Mongolian Scotch pine (P₅)), which were also employed in severely burned area under current planting intensity, and under natural regeneration (as a comparison) in Tuqiang Forest Bureau in the northern slopes of Great Xing’an Mountains after the catastrophic fire in 1987. Results showed that different planting types had a significant influence on the abundance of larch, Mongolian Scotch pine and white birch. The abundance of larch increased with time, whereas the abundance of Mongolian Scotch pine was in a converse way. The abundance of larch and Mongolian Scotch pine under these planting scenarios was higher than that under natural regeneration. Under these planting scenarios, the abundance of larch increased with the increasing proportion of larch, and the abundance of Mongolian Scotch pine was in a similar way. Contrary to larch and Mongolian Scotch pine, white birch had higher abundance under natural regeneration than that under these planting scenarios. Also, the different proportions of larch and Mongolian Scotch pine had an influence on the abundance of white birch. White birch had higher abundance with the increasing proportion of Mongolian Scotch pine. As for the total abundance of larch and Mongolian Scotch pine, the difference was not significant under P₂, P₃ and P₄ scenarios, but was higher than that under P1 and P5 scenarios, which indicated that individual-species planting should not be used in the forest landscape. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 2006, 17(5): 855–861 [译自: 应用生态学报]     

Leaf Scale Traces in Corsican Pine

Discusses briefly a feature observed during an investigationof the structure of leading shoots of 1-year-old Corsican pine(Pinus nigra var. calabrica, Loudon). The feature, which doesnot appear to have been described previously in literature hasbeen tentatively called a ‘Leaf scale trace’.