Adoption of agroforestry practices: a case study from Andhra Pradesh,India

This study analyzes factors influencing the adoption of agroforestry practices using logit analysis. In particular, the proposition that agroforestry practices have not been adopted by poor households is tested using data from West Godavari in the province of Andhra Pradesh, India. Innovation-decision process was used to guide the selection of variables used in the analysis. The results support the criticism that higher income farmers are the main beneficiaries of agroforestry if only farm forestry is considered. The results, however, do not support the criticism in the case of adoption of home gardens.     

Traditional agroforestry practices in Zimbabwe

Traditional agroforestry systems in the communal areas of Zimbabwe are described. There are systems centered on main fields, on home gardens, on homesites and on grazing areas. In the main fields, the major tree-related management practice is the conservation of preferred indigenous fruit trees. Fruit trees are also the focus of forestry activities around the gardens and the homesite; but here it is the planting of exotic species. In a localized area of Zimbabwe Acacia albida is important in fields. There is almost no use of tree fallows in Zimbabwe. Trees in grazing areas have numerous roles, but at present there is little knowledge about traditional management practices in these areas. In the development of agroforestry systems in Zimbabwe it is suggested that those systems designed to improve fodder production will make a significant contribution to farm productivity because of the importance of cattle in the farming system and the present fodder shortage. Interventions involving the planting of fruit trees are likely to be very successful, as there is much interest in such planting. Another area that needs to be developed is that of tree plantings to improve soil fertility.     

Frugivory by five bird species in agroforest home gardens of Pontal do Paranapanema,Brazil

The inefficiency of conservation efforts based exclusively on natural habitat patches has called the attention of some conservationists to the matrix. Described as the major component of a landscape, the matrix is often agricultural, particularly in the tropics. In this context, agroforestry practices have been recognized for their ability to support a rich fauna and flora. Besides the extensive literature concerning bird communities in agroforestry systems, very few studies analyze how different species respond to the management of such practices. Our study describes the diet and habitat use frequency of five frugivorous bird species in agroforest home gardens, secondary forests, and pastures in the region of Pontal do Paranapanema, Brazil. The focal species were Ramphastos toco (Toco Toucan), Pteroglossus castanotis (Chestnut-eared Aracari), Amazona aestiva (Blue-fronted Amazon), Ara chloroptera (Green-winged Macaw), and Cyanocorax chrysops (Plush-crested Jay). We gathered both habitat use frequency and diet using the “feeding-bout” method. Overall frequency was higher in the secondary forest when compared to pasture and home gardens for all bird species except A. aestiva. The number of feeding bouts was higher in home gardens than in forests for all species with the exception of C. chrysops. Differences in monthly median feeding activity were only statistically significant for C. chrysops and for A. aestiva. The latter was the only species observed feeding in pasture habitats. The total number of food taxa was larger in home gardens than in the forest. Our results reinforce the importance of agroforestry systems as a resource-rich habitat for frugivorous birds.     

Water management in agroforestry systems: integrated buffalo ponds and forest gardens in the Badulla district, Sri Lanka

Within agroforestry research relatively little attention has been given to water management practices. In order to illustrate the relevance of this management practice, an analysis is made of the integrated management of buffalo ponds and forest gardens in the Badulla district, Sri Lanka. The cultivation of multi-storeyed agroforests around small water reservoirs allows the combined management of vegetation and water resources. The ponds are primarily used for storing water, regulating streamflow, catching sediments and wallowing of water buffaloes. The inclusion of the ponds increases the multifunctional nature of the forest gardens, especially in relation to water, erosion and sedimentation management and animal husbandry, and thus optimizes the complementary nature of forest gardens in the total farming system.     

Testing an ecologically based classification tool on fruit-based agroforestry in northern Thailand

Ecologists are increasingly using multivariate analytical approaches to reveal relationships between communities. These methods have promise in other fields as well. The use of multivariate methods to delineate relationships and classify an agroforestry system was tested among fruit-based agroforestry gardens in northern Thailand. Data on crop species composition, species abundance, perennial-crop age groups, and other physical and ecological factors from 82 gardens in three villages in a Highland watershed in northern Thailand were used in this study. Using Hierarchical Cluster Analysis the gardens were divided into clusters, each representing a different garden type (or fruit-based agroforestry subsystem). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS) analysis was used to assist in the interpretation of classification groupings and analysis gradients. The NMS analysis shows overall crop diversity, herbaceous food crops, size and market potential of the fruit planting as important classifying factors. However, this analysis did not produce as clear distinctions as hoped among gardens in a continuum of gradually changing and overlapping characteristics.     

Fertilizers in agroforestry systems

This review encompasses results of fertilization experiments on several agroforestry systems—alley cropping, perennial shade systems, home gardens—in which fertilizer use is a likely management alternative. Fertilizer response was found to be most common in alley cropping, variable in perennial shade systems, and rarely reported in home gardens. Level of nutrient removal in harvested products is probably the overriding factor in determining fertilizer response; greater accumulation of organic residues, slower growth under shade, and longer periods of nutrient uptake probably also contribute to the relatively smaller fertilizer response of the perennial shade systems and home gardens. Considerable knowledge gaps exist regarding the breakdown of organic residues, and interactions between mineral and organic amendments. Systems based on annual crops (e.g., alley cropping) are likely to be less nutrient-efficient and sustainable than systems based on perennial crops, due to reduced fixation and transfer of N to the crops, the tendency of the trees to compete for and sequester nutrients, relatively high P requirements of the crops, and the high labor cost of tree management. The possible benefits of fertilization of specific components in home gardens, and relative advantages of including low-value tree legumes, high-value shade trees, and fertilization in shaded perennial systems are only beginning to receive research attention.     

Agroforestry potential in the southeastern United States: perceptions of landowners and extension professionals

The first steps in developing an agroforestry extension and training program involve compilation, synthesis, and analysis of current knowledge on existing practices. Equally important is to understand the perceptions of landowners and professionals of agroforestry as a land use option. No systematic effort has been made to assess these critical issues in the southeastern United States. Therefore, needs assessment surveys were developed following an analysis of major demographic issues that frame land use in the region and synthesis of information obtained from informal site visits and interviews with people engaged in resource and land use in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. Surveys of extension professionals and landowners were then undertaken in the states of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia to represent the southeastern region. In addition to getting insights into the perceived benefits and concerns about agroforestry practices, the surveys indicated that the extent of alley cropping, forest farming and silvopasture practiced by landowners was less than anticipated, and that the prominence of windbreaks was overlooked by professionals. Managed riparian forest buffers or streamside management zones and windbreak technologies were the most widely used forms of agroforestry in the study area, although landowners did not recognize influence of agroforestry practices on quality or quantity of water among benefits of highest importance to them. Multistrata patio- or home gardens were also a prominent landowner-practice and acknowledged by professionals. These survey results can be useful for developing a relevant agroforestry extension and training program in the subtropical Southeast and may be of interest to agroforestry efforts in other similar settings. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Enhancing the food security of upland farming households through agroforestry in Claveria,Misamis Oriental,Philippines

The impact of agroforestry on food security of upland farmers is least recognized and appreciated given that the linkage between them is quite complex and not well understood. The crucial role of agroforestry in enhancing food supply and augmenting family income is commonly ignored. This study aimed to get a deeper understanding of the role of agroforestry in ensuring food security of farming households in the Philippine uplands. A combination of participatory approaches including participatory rural appraisal, household survey, focused group discussions, field experiments and simulation modeling were used for the study conducted in Claveria, Northern Mindanao, Philippines. The first major finding was that the prime responsibility for ensuring adequacy of food production and supply for the farming households rested on the husband and wife. The second major finding based on the simulation results was that agroforestry increased and stabilized corn yields under hedgerow system. Moreover, fruits from perennial crops and trees served as secondary food crops especially during lean months of food supply. The last major finding was that the adoption of agroforestry significantly increased the level of benefits by around 42–137%, compared with the low income from continuous annual monocropping. The key to making upland farm households food secure is to increase the productivity of their farms and home gardens. A good start is to promote the agroforestry system in upland areas, and it is thereby recommended that both national and local government units mainstream their policies and efforts toward promotion of agroforestry adoption in the Philippine uplands.     

A case for consumer-driven extension programming: agroforestry adoption potential in Pennsylvania

In an effort to assess agroforestry adoption potential among a diverse Pennsylvania landowner population, a mail survey instrument was sent to 250 members of the Pennsylvania Association of Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) and 250 members of Woodland Owner Associations (WOA). Current management objectives and production strategies, agroforestry awareness, agroforestry interest, and perceptions regarding the benefits and obstacles to agroforestry adoption were gauged. Market segmentation was performed with a two-step cluster analysis to produce four agroforestry adoption potential models: Timber-Related Practices, Livestock-Related Practices, Specialty Crop-Related Practices, and Non-Adopters. The analyses showed that agroforestry practices could indeed satisfy specific land management objectives within diverse populations. The key to outreach success and adoption will be to engage these landowner groups according to their unique interests and values, and to demonstrate the potential agroforestry has to enhance existing objectives.     

Agroforestry systems in the rural landscape – a case study in Garhwal Himalaya, India

A mid altitude (700–1200 m amsl.) village in Garhwal Himalaya was analysed in terms of energy and economic efficiency of different land use-land cover types constituting the landscape. Simultaneous agroforestry, sequential agroforestry, home garden and community forests accounted for 27.47%, 27.47%, 1.1% and 43.96% of the total geographical area of the village. Simultaneous agroforestry is the traditional land use involving substantial input of manure derived from forest litter and animal excreta and was practised on terraced slopes in private ownership. Tree cover in this system was represented by nine species with total average density of 390 trees ha⁻¹, Grewia optiva and Boehmeria rugulosa being the most dominant. Sequential agroforestry system involving slash-burn practice and cultivation on unterraced slopes without tillage and manuring was an illicit land use on community lands where forestry land use is desirable as per the government policy. Per ha annual energy input in simultaneous agroforestry system was 305267 MJ compared to 279 MJ in sequential agroforestry and 27047 MJ in home garden. In monetary terms, highest per ha annual output was obtained from simultaneous agroforestry (Rs 25370, Rs 35 = US$1) followed by home garden (Rs 18200) and sequential agroforestry (Rs 9426). Local food, fodder and fuelwood production was in excess of the local consumption. While most of the surplus food was stored, surplus fodder and fuelwood were sold for cash. Production in simultaneous agroforestry system in private lands was sustained with substantial biomass and nutrient inputs from the community and government forests. Land use-land cover changes in the region are driven by the interaction of ecological, policy and human factors. It is concluded that present policy of treating forests and agriculture as closed and independent ecological or production systems needs to be replaced by an integrated land use policy. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Trade-offs between rubber production and maintenance of diversity: the structure of rubber gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia

The goal of this study was to assess the potential of small-holder rubber cultivation in agroforestry gardens to fulfill simultaneously the goals of conservation and sustainable rural development. I examined the structure and species composition of trees in 11 rubber gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, using a single 0.10 ha plot per garden. Although 41 distinct morphotypes were encountered, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) dominated the sample of 370 trees. Richness within plots varied (3–15 morphotypes), as did the predominance of rubber (24–97% of all basal area, 24–91% of all individuals). The importance of rubber within a garden was significantly negatively correlated with the number of morphotypes present. This result suggests that tree diversity may limit potential productivity of rubber gardens. Thus, small-holders may not be willing to maintain diversity at the scale of a single garden. Although species-accumulation curves indicate that substantial tree diversity may exist across all rubber holdings, diversity is likely to be lost from the system if individual owners reduce species richness in their gardens. Rubber agroforestry as currently practiced in West Kalimantan is not an ideal model for matching rural development needs with the achievement of conservation goals. Other models, such as tengkawang- and durian-based fruit gardens, do exist in Kalimantan and elsewhere, and should be evaluated for incorporation into policy and development strategies.     

Assessing agroforestry adoption potential utilising market segmentation: A case study in Pennsylvania

In the United States, agroforestry adoption has lagged behind progress in agroforestry systems research. This study sought to facilitate the communication of landowner land management objectives, values, knowledge and perceptions of the barriers and benefits to agroforestry through applied social marketing research methods and market segmentation analysis. A mail survey instrument was sent to 250 members of the Pennsylvania Association of Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) and 250 members of Woodland Owner Associations (WOA). Current management objectives and production strategies, agroforestry awareness, agroforestry interest, and perceptions regarding the benefits and obstacles to agroforestry adoption were gauged. Market segmentation was performed with a two-step cluster analysis to produce four agroforestry adoption potential models: Timber-Related Practices, Livestock-Related Practices, Specialty Crop-Related Practices, and Non-Adopters. The analyses showed that agroforestry practices could satisfy specific land management objectives within diverse populations. The method effectively identified similarities in agroforestry adoption scenarios. Market segmentation could be utilised as a social marketing tool to guide future policy development, scientific research, and the efficacy and relevance of future agroforestry research and outreach programs. The next step in program development should include the creation of a statewide multidisciplinary team comprised of university, non-profit association and landowner representation, to develop agroforestry applications relevant to each cluster and promote the practices through landowner-led on-farm demonstrations and workshops.     

Agroforestry education

Development of agroforestry education is following the pattern of evolution of some other areas of study such as plant pathology, genetics, and statistics. At universities these three areas began within another department or departments, and after being moved into their own departments began to flourish and develop their own identity. However, the main question is what can or should be done to further the process? The increasing number of agroforestry projects in the world, the lack of trained agroforesters, and the estimated increased need for agricultural scientists are all indicators for the future demand for trained agroforesters. Career opportunities for professional agroforesters lie in three areas: as research scientists, as extension agents, or as development agroforesters. Two broad educational approaches to setting educational objectives are to (1) set objectives on the basis of the perceived problems likely to be encountered in agroforestry and (2) set objectives according to roles which agroforesters are likely to assume. The design of both undergraduate and postgraduate curricula are discussed. The unique core is the agroforestry system per se and the development of a systems analysis methodology. The institutional structure and clear goal definition can facilitate the development of an agroforestry program, but in the final analysis it is the dedication and enthusiasm of the individual staff that will count for success.     

Agroforestry practices of non-industrial private forest landowners in Washington State

A mail survey was conducted to gain understanding of the agroforestry practices of non-industrial private forest landowners (NIPF) in Washington State, located in the north-western USA. Although NIPF owners control 1.5 million hectares of the state's commercial forestland base, their diversity of forestland uses, land management practices and objectives as land managers are not well understood. Past NIPF surveys and anecdotal information suggest agroforestry is a major use of NIPF lands. We defined agroforestry as a potentially sustainable land use practice combining the deliberate growing of woody perennials with agricultural crops and/or animals. Objectives of this study were to:

1. determine the extent that agroforestry is used by Washington's NIPF owners,
2. develop insight into NIPF owners' motivations for practicing agroforestry,
3. describe the agroforestry practices within three distinct physiographic and agroecological zones in Washington, and
4. determine the agroforestry information needs of NIPF owners.

The target population consisted of NIPF owners in 4 counties within each of the three regions. Response to the August 1990 mail survey was 63.5%, yielding 296 useable questionnaires. Fifty-seven percent of all respondents practice agroforestry. Forestland grazing is the most common agroforestry practice (39% of all respondents), followed by windbreaks (34%), harvest of special forest products (12%), livestock enrichment plantings for forage or shelter (7%), orchard grazing (5%), orchard intercropping (2%), and Christmas tree grazing (0.34%). The most frequent motives for owning land were passing land on to children (80%), keeping it natural and income from timber (both 72%). Respondents saw aesthetics (77%), increasing land unit income (74%), and water conservation (70%) as possible advantages of practicing agroforestry. High establishment costs (66%) and livestock damage to trees or crops (64%) were the most frequently selected potential disadvantages to practicing agroforestry. Lack of technical and educational support (67%) and lack of access to livestock/livestock facilities (58%) were disincentives to practicing agroforestry. Landowners are interested in learning more about agroforestry and how agroforestry techniques might be incorporated in their land management tool kit. A significant number of non-industrial private forest land owners in Washington believe that management of forestland, balancing conservation and production goals, can be furthered by suitable agroforestry practices.     

Economic aspects of agroforestry

Agroforestry is analysed by means of economic concepts. The paper is mainly theoretical, since there are little adequate data to test the conceptual framework.Agroforestry needs not be limited to integration of agriculture and forestry on a plot, but may also include integration on a holding. Design and evaluation of agroforestry systems require thorough knowledge of relationships between agriculture and forestry. Complementary and supplementary relationships, mainly resulting from biological factors, were identified, which make agroforestry an efficient system of land use.Agroforestry can be an appropriate technology in areas with fragile ecosystems and subsistence farming. The objectives of participants in an agroforestry programme may not coincide with social objectives, and so do not lead to the socially optimum combination of agriculture and forestry. For that social optimum institutional arrangements will often be required.This paper is s shortened updated version of part of a lecture series on agroforestry, organized by the Departments of Forestry, Agricultural University, Wageningen [29].The author thanks his colleagues C.P. Veer and K.F. Wiersum for helpful comments.     

Planning optimal economic strategies for agroforestry systems

Design of agroforestry systems requires a land management planning process that clearly specifies wants, needs and objectives along with the land's suitability for potential agroforestry practices. Within this planning process economic analysis can be used to analyze agroforestry alternatives to help determine the proper system to apply. Specifically, production economics coupled with capital theory and valuation techniques can provide measures of economic performance in terms of present net values, benefit-cost ratios and internal rates of return. These economic performance measures can be used to determine the best joint production level for a particular agroforestry practice. Once these best combinations have been defined, linear programming can be applied using these best joint production combinations as decision variables along with considering a wide range of additional constraints and requirements. A hypothetical example is used to illustrate the planning process and how these economic tools can be combined as a package to help determine optimal agroforestry strategies.     

A Case Study Assessment of Agroforestry

Summary

Finding sustainable land-use systems within the Panama Canal Watershed will be necessary for future management by the Panamanian government. Agroforestry is a land-use option for small-scale farmers living within the Watershed that can help achieve the goals of both conservation and productivity. This case study qualitatively evaluates current agroforestry projects in the Canal Watershed using an analytical framework based on other evaluations of agroforestry systems in Central America. Designated criteria for the analysis include: management objectives, project life span, incentives, technology, economic feasibility, community involvement, and extension. These factors can present obstacles to wide-scale adoption of agroforestry systems by small-scale farmers, thus preventing the realization of associated benefits of agroforestry. The analysis of the three field sites visited in March 1998 is followed by recommendations for expanding agroforestry practices among farmers in the Watershed.     

Agroforestry in the interior highlands

The USDA Agricultural Research Service, headquartered at the South Central Family Farm Research Center, Booneville, Arkansas, recently initiated an agroforestry research program for the interior highlands and the southeastern United States. The purpose of the agroforestry program is to develop a research and technology transfer program in agroforestry that will provide additional alternative income opportunities for family farms of this region. The objectives of the program are: 1) to develop new information on the establishment, maintenance, and utilization of conifer and hardwood tree stands in open pastures, 2) to develop new knowledge in multiple-use management and their environmental impacts, and 3) to facilitate multidisciplinary networks and partnerships of farmers, technical specialists, scientists, and managers for accomplishing agroforestry research and technology transfer.     

Temporal analysis of agroforestry systems for rural development

Temporal analysis is introduced as a method to assess the suitability of agroforestry projects for meeting rural development objectives. This form of analysis provides a common base for examining social, economic, ecological, and managerial aspects of agroforestry systems.Temporal analysis begins by describing projects and the activities comprising them for both an agroforestry system and the local population. Factors constraining the sequence of activities are then examined. The assumptions and values regarding the past, present, or future are also analyzed for all groups involved in the agroforestry system. The range of goal oriented behavior affecting scale and duration of projects may be dependent on this time horizon.By understanding these factors, the changes in activities of a social system that may result from a proposed agroforstry innovation can be anticipated. The nature of these changes and their perception by the local population can be evaluated.     

Deterioration of a sustainable agro-silvo-pastoral system in the Sudan: the gum gardens of Kordofan

The development and establishment of agroforestry systems is often suggested as a way to stabilize rural economies in developing countries [King, 1979]. At the same time, some traditional systems are being lost, due to an inability to protect the perennial or tree crop components of the system. These traditional systems and the forces that reinforce or destroy them should be carefully studied by those in the process of encouraging adoption of agroforestry systems in the developing world. The gum gardens of Western Sudan are a case in point.Acacia senegal (hashab) andAcacia seyal (talh) are the two major marketable gum-producing trees found in the western region of Sudan. TheAcacias are grown as part of an agro-silvo-pastoral system that has persisted for more than a hundred years in Kordofan Province, where 70% of Sudan's gum Arabic was once produced, as well as most of its grain and livestock products. After a lengthy drought lasting from 1979 to 1985 gum production in Sudan drastically decreased. It was reported that pest attacks and drought were major causal agents in the decline of gum production [Awouda, 1989; Sungar, 1986]. A survey executed in Northern Kordofan Province, starting in August of 1986, did uncover a great number of deadAcacias due to drought and pest attack, but from interviews with gum farmers we conclude that the decline in gum production is largely due to unfavorable socioeconomic relationships exacerbated by the drought, leading to the deterioration of the agroforestry system of production. An inability to get a fair price for gum at the local level and increasing emphasis on a cash economy led to the neglect of the tree components of the system. The gum gardens have long flourished with the intensive husbandry of small-scale farmers. Once these farmers were no longer able to care for them, the gum trees disappeared from the system, indicating that a lack of community stability can be fatal to even a well-developed agroforestry system.