Heterogeneous wetland complexes, buffer zones, and travel corridors: Landscape management for freshwater reptiles

While the importance of nearby terrestrial habitats is gaining recognition in contemporary wetland management strategies, it is rarely recognized that different wetlands are often diverse in their functions of meeting the annual or life-cycle requirements of many species, and that migration between these wetlands is also critical. Using radio-telemetry, we examined terrestrial habitat use and movements of 53 eastern long-necked turtles (Chelodina longicollis) in an area of southeast Australia characterized by spatially diverse and temporally variable wetlands. Male and female C. longicollis exhibited a high degree of dependence on terrestrial habitat, the majority (95%) of individuals using sites within 375 m of the wetland. Turtles also associated with more than one wetland, using permanent lakes during droughts and moving en masse to nearby temporary wetlands after flooding. Turtles used 2.4 ± 0.1 (range = 1-5) wetlands separated by 427 ± 62 (range = 40-1470) m and moved between these wetlands 2.6 ± 0.3 (range = 0-12) times over the course of a year. A literature review revealed that several species of reptiles from diverse taxonomic groups move between wetlands separated by a mean minimum and maximum distance of 499-1518 m. A high proportion of studies attributed movements to seasonal migrations (55%) and periodic drought (37%). In such cases we argue that the different wetlands offer complimentary resources and that managing wetlands as isolated units, even with generous terrestrial buffer zones, would not likely conserve core habitats needed to maintain local abundance or persistence of populations over the long term. Core management units should instead reflect heterogeneous groups of wetlands together with terrestrial buffer zones and travel corridors between wetlands.     

Effects of structural and functional connectivity and patch size on the abundance of seven Atlantic Forest bird species

We studied the importance of fragment size and structural and functional connectivity on the occurrence and abundance of seven Atlantic Forest bird species in 13 patches (13-275 ha) and three sites within a continuous forest (10,000 ha). We sampled birds with point counts and evaluated structural connectivity considering the presence of corridors and the degree of isolation. We defined functional connectivity by analyzing species movements using playbacks in forest corridors between fragments and in the surrounding matrix. Species differed in their responses to fragmentation. For the frugivorous species, Trogon surrucura, Carpornis cucullatus and Triclaria malachitacea, patch size was the main factor determining abundance. Two understory insectivorous species, Basileuterus leucoblepharus and Pyriglena leucoptera, were more affected by the degree of patch connectivity, the former by the presence of corridors and the latter by the distance between patches. The capacity of P. leucoptera to use corridors and open areas (i.e. functional connectivity) shaped its abundance pattern. Fragmentation had no effect on the abundance of Chiroxiphia caudata and had a positive effect on Batara cinerea. This study emphasizes the importance of considering species’ perceptions of landscape, especially functional connectivity, in understanding the effects of habitat fragmentation.     

Fragmented but not isolated: Contribution of single trees, small patches and long-distance pollen flow to genetic connectivity for Gomortega keule, an endangered Chilean tree

Habitat fragmentation is a major threat to species survival worldwide due to genetic isolation, inbreeding depression, genetic drift and loss of adaptive potential. However the data on how gene-flow changes following habitat fragmentation is contradictory. If there is significant gene-flow between spatially isolated populations then limited conservation resources could be directed away from projects to ‘establish genetic connectivity’ and used to address other consequences of habitat fragmentation.This research focused on an endangered tree species Gomortega keule (Gomortegaceae) in a fragmented landscape in the Central Chile Biodiversity Hotspot and addressed three questions: (1) How far does pollen move between pollen donors and seed trees and what is the shape of the dispersal curve? (2) Do insect pollinators travel outside of forest patches? (3) Do small populations and single trees contribute to genetic connectivity across the landscape?Paternity analysis results show that G. keule’s insect pollinators travel outside of forest patches, over distances of 6 km, beyond the scale of population fragmentation or genetic structure. Pollen moved from small sites and single trees into large sites, as well as in the other direction, indicating these sites play a key role as functioning elements of the wider population and as stepping stones between sites. Fragmentation at the scale investigated has not led to genetic isolation, thus genetic connectivity per se is not a conservation priority. Other consequences of land-use change, specifically continuing habitat loss and population reduction, still threaten the survival of the species.     

Ontogenetic niche shifts in the American Alligator establish functional connectivity between aquatic systems

Individual animals undergoing ontogenetic shifts in habitat use may establish a mobile link between discrete ecosystems via movement of energy, nutrients and matter, as well as through impacts on ecosystem and habitat structure. The American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is a model species for studying ecological implications of ontogenetic niche shifts, because they grow in size by several orders of magnitude, and they play a critical role as both top predators and ecosystem engineers. We used equal trapping effort, radio telemetry and nest surveys to document ontogenetic habitat shifts of alligators between hydrologically isolated, seasonal wetlands and riverine systems. To estimate the degree of functional connectivity between systems, we quantified alligator biomass and nutrient excretion in both systems. Seasonal wetlands provided nesting and nursery sites for adult females and juveniles, which constituted 0.78 g/m² biomass and excreted 0.05 g/m²/yr N, P, Ca, Mg, Na and K in that system. In contrast, the riverine system provided non-nesting habitat for adults and sub-adults of both sexes, totaling 0.18 g/m² biomass and excreting 0.01 g/m²/yr of nutrients. Furthermore, sub-adults and adult females were documented moving across the terrestrial matrix, while adult males spent the duration of the study in the creek. Our results demonstrated that ontogenetic niche shifts in alligators establish connectivity between seasonal wetlands and riverine systems and with the surrounding terrestrial matrix. These findings have implications for the definition of jurisdictional wetlands under the US Supreme Court’s 2001 SWANCC decision and highlight the importance of ecological, as well as hydrological, connectivity.     

Comparative water snake ecology: conservation of mobile animals that use temporally dynamic resources

Obtaining information on movement and spatial patterns of animals and understanding the factors that shape their movements about the landscape are critical steps in designing conservation strategies. We conducted a comparative radiotelemetry study of two snake species, the northern water snake, Nerodia sipedon sipedon, and the imperiled copperbelly water snake, Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta, in northwest Ohio and southern Michigan to assess differences in movement patterns, spatial ecology, and resource use. N. e. neglecta moved distances (53.3 ± 7.1 m/day and 4809 ± 603 m/year) over twice as far as N. s. sipedon (25.6 ± 2.7 m/day and 2244 ± 228 m/year), and used areas nearly four times larger (15.8 ± 2.7 ha) than N. s. sipedon (4.0 ± 0.9 ha). When wetlands were widely dispersed in the landscape, N. e. neglecta moved longer distances and used larger areas, whereas spatial and movement patterns in N. s. sipedon were unaffected by wetland spatial distribution. N. e. neglecta’s long movements and large area use are likely related to its use of variable resources such as ephemeral wetlands and anuran prey. N. s. sipedon used more permanent wetlands and preyed more generally on fish and anurans. Habitat alterations that change the spatial distribution of wetlands in the landscape, such as the loss of small isolated wetlands, have likely increased energetic costs and mortality rates for N. e. neglecta. Conservation strategies for vagile wetland animals that use spatially and temporally variable resources over broad spatial scales should focus on protecting and restoring large areas with numerous, heterogeneous wetlands.     

Conservation issues of temporary wetland Branchiopoda (Anostraca, Notostraca: Crustacea) in a semiarid agricultural landscape: What spatial scales are relevant?

Ecologists increasingly recognise the importance of spatial scale for conservation. This study focuses on threatened temporary wetland crustaceans, the fairy shrimp Branchinecta orientalis Sars (Anostraca) and the tadpole shrimp Triops cancriformis Bosc (Notostraca). Using redundancy analyses with a canonical variance partitioning approach, we studied how local habitat conditions and landscape features influence their densities at 4 spatial scales (100 m buffer strip around ponds, 1 km, 5 km and 10 km catchment scales). Branchinecta densities were negatively related with local conditions (trophic status) at all scales. Landscape effects (catchment:wetland size ratio) were only significant at the 10 km scale. However, trophic state conditions were influenced by local contamination rather than landscape conditions. Local degradation tended to be more pronounced in wetlands situated in catchments with a higher cover of natural vegetation compared to those in agricultural catchments. Triops was less influenced by local effects at all scales. The importance of landscape effects increased with landscape scale but effects were only significant at the 10 km scale, and were negatively explained by irrigated croplands. The importance of broad landscape scales and the difficulty to restore locally degraded sites challenges management. Because rationalisation of large-scale agricultural practises can conflict with socioeconomic demands, a first step to the conservation of actual Branchiopoda populations in this remnant wetland complex could benefit from the creation of vegetated buffer strips around the wetlands and/or hedgerows around agricultural fields to counteract atmosphere-mediated flux of particles and solutes from croplands to wetlands at broad landscape scales.     

Survival, dispersal and early migration movements of captive-bred juvenile eastern loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus migrans)

Avian captive breeding programs pose a particular challenge with migratory birds due to natal dispersal and high mortality during migration. In Canada a captive breeding program for the eastern loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus migrans) has released over 400 juveniles since 2001, but the fate of almost all these birds is unknown. In 2007 and 2008, we used radio-telemetry of captive-reared juveniles to determine pre-migration survival and dispersal movements away from the release site. Overall, 76% (29 of 38) of shrikes survived from release to the initiation of migration and the daily survival rate was 0.987. Most deaths (78%) occurred in females, suggesting a possible sex-biased pre-migration mortality. Shrikes typically dispersed independently, there was little overlap between dispersal sites, and the average pre-migration dispersal distance from the release site was 4.2 km (SD 2.4). Release date was negatively correlated with time spent at the release site prior to dispersal, but did not have a significant effect on survival, time spent at dispersal sites or distance of dispersal. Migration initiation date ranged over 6 weeks and early-hatched juveniles were the first to begin migration. Using aerial telemetry, we located five of 29 birds that had begun migration at distances up to 180 km from the release site; no birds were found dead after initiating migration despite the extensive search area. High juvenile survival to migration for captive-reared juveniles suggests that the captive breeding and release program has high potential to augment wild populations of the eastern loggerhead shrike.     

Inter-annual variability in the home range of breeding turtles: Implications for current and future conservation management

We assessed home range size for breeding loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) near the limit of the species range at the Greek island of Zakynthos in the Mediterranean. Thirteen adult females and seven adult males were tracked using GPS units (loggers and transmitters) during May and June of 2006, 2007 and 2008. Kernel analysis indicated that core home range sizes (50% estimator; range: 2.9-19.7 km²) for both males and females were restricted to a 7.5 km tract of coastline. 15% of GPS locations fell outside of the national park protection zones, while within the protected breeding area 88% of GPS locations occurred in zones of minimal protection. Female home ranges were 64% larger in 2008 than in 2006 and 2007, indicating that several years monitoring may be required for the most effective designation of marine protected areas (MPAs). Ten of the tracked females departed the core breeding area on 15 occasions for periods of 1-15 days travelling distances of 10-100 km, although none nested at alternative breeding sites. The inter-annual variability of breeding area home range size and likelihood of incidence of forays appeared be correlated with barometric pressure. The movement responses of loggerheads to environmental conditions implicates an ability to switch nesting areas over small scales in response to climate change. However, such behaviour suggests the protection of existing core breeding sites may be inadequate, with policy makers being required to consider the protection of broader areas to encompass potential changes in the habitat needs of this species.     

Can regenerating clearcuts benefit mature-forest songbirds? An examination of post-breeding ecology

Although clearcuts traditionally have been regarded as detrimental to birds associated with mature-forest, recent evidence suggests that during the post-breeding period regenerating clearcuts can provide habitat for many avian species associated with mature-forest. We examined use of regenerating clearcuts by mature-forest birds during the post-breeding period and evaluated the degree to which birds were sensitive to patch characteristics. From 15 June to 16 August in 2002-2003 we mist-netted and banded birds nine times each year in 12 regenerating hardwood clearcuts (4-7 years post-clearcut) that represented small (4.0-9.3 ha) and large (13.3-18.1 ha) clearcuts in southeast Ohio, USA. Nine nets were systematically deployed within each clearcut and placed 20, 50, and 80 m from mature-forest edges. At each net location, we measured habitat characteristics and sampled arthropod and fruit resources two-weekly. During the post-breeding period we captured 1648 mature-forest birds of 32 species, and several classic forest-interior species were among our most commonly captured species. Seventy-one percent of mature-forest captures were juveniles, which suggests that habitat provided by regenerating clearcuts may play an important role in post-fledging survival. Most post-breeding individuals avoided edges, and instead heavily used the clearcut interiors. Paradoxically, juveniles and post-breeding adults also avoided large clearcuts, and capture rates were up to four times greater in small than large regenerating clearcuts. Overall, our results suggest that regenerating clearcuts may be important resources for mature-forest birds during the post-breeding period, and forested landscapes containing a mosaic of successional stages may hold the most conservation promise for mature-forest birds.     

Geochemical tracing and spatial evolution of the sediment bed load of the Romaine River,Québec,Canada

A four-reservoir hydroelectric complex which is projected on the Romaine River, in eastern Québec, Canada, will likely lead to the complete settling of the sand-size bed load of the river. In order to characterise the present river bed load sources, sediment transport and sedimentary connectivity, a study was conducted to document the compositional continuum of the lower 300 km portion of the river. Bed load samples were collected during the late summer low water period and ICP-MS geochemical analyses of the light and heavy mineral portions were conducted. Principal component analysis of the results successfully identified a series of distinctive geochemical domains. Multivariate Euclidean distance coefficients were also calculated between consecutive samples along the river revealing major bed load compositional breaks. These results indicate a longitudinal fractionation of the bed load along the 300 km course of the river. This is further supported by the sedimentary budget calculated from the annual sedimentary input derived from erosion rates of the river banks, from sediment bed load measurements at three gauging stations and from calculated bed load transport capacity at these three locations. It appears that significant sediment accommodation space is available on the upper course (250 km) of the Romaine River, in spite of the fact that this river has drained highly sediment-laden meltwaters from the receding Laurentide Ice Sheet, some 10 ka ago. This accommodation space leads to the renewal of the bed load due to recurrent partial to complete sedimentation. The major part of the bed load reaching the Romaine River mouth originates from the lower 50 km of the river course.     

Plantation rows as dispersal routes: A test with didelphid marsupials in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil

Anecdotal observations suggest that some vertebrates follow plantation rows when crossing between habitat patches in fragmented landscapes, but the frequency of such behavior was never formally tested despite its potential implications for landscape management. We experimentally tested if the didelphid marsupials Didelphis aurita and Philander frenatus use plantation rows as guidelines when searching for habitat patches in a landscape of fragmented Atlantic Forest in Brazil. Thirty-seven individuals of P. frenatus and 24 of D. aurita were captured in forest fragments and released carrying spool-and-line tracking devices at four distances (30-200 m) from a forest fragment, in a matrix of manioc plantations. Animals of both species used plantation rows to orient their initial movements and used rows as guidelines along their paths for navigating in the matrix. By moving predominantly parallel to the plantation rows animals reduced the tortuosity of their paths and obtained an unobstructed view of the landscape ahead. These results demonstrate that the orientation of linear plantations can strongly influence functional connectivity between habitat fragments. Plantation rows should be oriented to maximize connection between nearby fragments, enhancing dispersal success of these species and probably many other terrestrial vertebrates in agricultural landscapes.     

Matrix mediates avian movements in tropical forested landscapes: Inference from experimental translocations

Maintaining animal movement in fragmented landscapes depends upon the levels of connectivity among habitat patches, which in turn may depend upon the landscape matrix. Little is known about how the matrix affects dispersal abilities, in part because few experimental tests have been conducted. We experimentally translocated 142 migratory American Redstarts (Setophaga ruticilla) and resident Jamaican Todies (Todus todus) 0.6-4 km from their territories across landscapes fragmented by peri-urban development and bauxite mining and continuous forest. Redstarts returned more rapidly and with greater success than todies across all landscapes, with 95% of redstarts returning in an average of 2.5 days versus 60% of todies in >20 days. Return success was best predicted by translocation distance for redstarts and by sex for todies, with a trend of fewer birds returning when released in bauxite landscapes. Return time was strongly affected by matrix type, with both species returning more rapidly in a forested relative to a bauxite matrix and intermediately in a peri-urban matrix. These findings provide strong experimental evidence that land cover surrounding forested habitat influences species mobility.     

Application of central-place foraging theory shows the importance of Mediterranean dehesas for the conservation of the cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus

The dehesa (oak woodland) is an extensive agro-pastoral ecosystem characteristic of the Western Mediterranean countries which is suffering a great transformation process since 1950. Although its distribution largely overlaps with several endangered species, there is scarce information on how they use this human-transformed habitat. We studied the foraging habitat selection of one of them, the cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus. We radio-tracked 14 cinereous vultures in one of the largest European colonies from 1998 to 2000. Used and available habitats were compared at two scales using compositional analysis. Moreover, we developed a distance-based GLMM for assessing habitat selection in this central-place forager species, by taking into account the spatial distribution of habitat patches in relation to the location of the colony. Home ranges overlapped over a total surface of 592,527 ha around the colony, and both individual home ranges and travel foraging distances (mean 27.86 km, maximum 86 km) were larger during the breeding season. All cinereous vultures avoided agricultural lands within their home ranges throughout the year. Habitat use in relation to the distance to the colony pointed out that dehesas were positively selected in spite of being on average far away from the colony than other habitats, a result that was consistent among individuals and seasons. The cinereous vulture thus depends for its conservation not only on the protection of breeding areas, as has been so far considered, but also on the maintenance of well-conserved dehesas close to the colonies. Preserving the cinereous vultures could contribute to the economic sustainability of dehesas by attracting PAC funds for their traditional low-intensity exploitation. Although other species may also benefit from this study since cinereous vulture could be a “flagship” for the large-scale conservation of Mediterranean oak woodlands and associated biodiversity, more fine local management guidelines should be performed on the basis of studies on more sensitive species.     

Ecotone characteristics of a southern Appalachian Mountain wetland

Southern Appalachian Mountain wetlands support important habitat and serve several hydrologic functions. However, they may be threatened by human activities and global climate change. These wetlands are often located in remote, biogeographically isolated locations at high elevations. One of the largest of these wetlands — the peatlands within the Cranberry Glades Botanical Area — was assessed for meadow–forest ecotone characteristics. The Cranberry Glades have been reported to be infilling with trees from the surrounding forest, but little research has been conducted on the patterns of tree growth within the moss-dominated communities. Tree establishment patterns were analyzed in regard to location within the ecotone, hummock/hollow topography, and soil conditions by recording the growing conditions of 1389 trees located within nine, 10 × 100 m belt transects. The results indicated that tree growth within the ecotone occurred in decreasing density from the forest to the meadow interior, and much of the tree establishment occurred in tree islands (80% of trees were found in tree islands). Significantly more trees (92%) were also found on hummocks than hollows (8%), likely in response to the greater distance from the water table that the hummocks provide. Most soil properties did not vary significantly across the ecotone or in association with topography. The results add to the minimal literature on southern peatlands and may assist in peatland restoration and conservation efforts.     

Factors and scales potentially important for saproxylic beetles in temperate mixed oak forest

The influence of environmental factors on species richness and species composition may be manifested at different spatial levels. Exploring these relationships is important to understand at which spatial scales certain species and organism groups become sensitive to fragmentation and changes in habitat quality. At different spatial scales we evaluated the potential influence of 45 factors (multiple regression, PCA) on saproxylic oak beetles in 21 smaller broadleaved Swedish forests of conservation importance (woodland key habitats, WKH). Local amount of dead wood in forests is often assumed to be important, but two landscape variables, area of oak dominated woodland key habitats within 1 km of sites and regional amount of dead oak wood, were the main (and strong) predictors of variation in local species richness of oak beetles. The result was similar for red-listed beetles associated with oak. Species composition of the beetles was also best predicted by area of oak woodland key habitat within 1 km, with canopy closure as the second predictor. Despite suitable local quality of the woodland key habitats, the density of such habitat patches may in many areas be too low for long-term protection of saproxylic beetles associated with broadleaved temperate forests. Landscapes with many clustered woodland key habitats rich in oak should have high priority for conservation of saproxylic oak beetles.     

The impacts of Phalaris arundinacea (reed canarygrass) invasion on wetland plant richness in the Oregon Coast Range, USA depend on beavers

Invasive plants can threaten diversity and ecosystem function. We examined the relationship between the invasive Phalaris arundinacea (reed canarygrass) and species richness in beaver wetlands in Oregon, USA. Four basins (drainages) were chosen and three sites each of beaver impoundments, unimpounded areas and areas upstream of debris jams were randomly chosen in each basin for further study (n = 36). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that the relationship between Phalaris and species richness differed significantly (p = 0.01) by site type. Dam sites (beaver impoundments) exhibited a strong inverse relationship between Phalaris and species richness (b_D = −0.15), with one species lost for each 7% increase in Phalaris cover. In contrast, there was essentially no relationship between Phalaris cover and species richness in jam sites (debris jam impoundments formed by flooding; b_J = +0.01) and unimpounded sites (b_U = −0.03). The cycle of beaver impoundment and abandonment both disrupts the native community and provides an ideal environment for Phalaris, which once established tends to exclude development of herbaceous communities and limits species richness. Because beaver wetlands are a dominant wetland type in the Coast Range, Phalaris invasion presents a real threat to landscape heterogeneity and ecosystem function in the region.     

Status and conservation of the grey seal, Halichœrus grypus, in France

We investigated the status of the grey seal in the Molène archipelago, western Brittany, where a Marine National Park is planned. We combined regular censuses, photo-identification and satellite telemetry to investigate trends in grey seal abundance, site fidelity, individual movements and haulout site use. Individual movements and seasonal variations in abundance suggest that the seals used the Molène archipelago alternatively with other haulout sites of the South-west British Isles during their annual cycle. Nine out of 16 seals fitted with Satellite Relay Data Loggers (SRDLs) moved to the Isles of Scilly, English Cornwall, Wales or the Channel islands. On average the seals spent 85% of their time Near Haulout, 56.8% of which in the Molène archipelago. Overall the seals spent 66% of their tracking time within the boundaries of the Marine National Park. From 1997 to 2000 in the Molène archipelago, we observed a peak in number during the moulting season (mean = 49.8 seals) and a lower abundance during the breeding season (mean = 38.3 seals). The sex ratio was strongly skewed towards males during the moult (between 3.1 and 5.3-1), and was close to 1:1 during the summer. Inter-annual site fidelity outside the breeding season was very high, varying from 70% to 95% of identified seals, suggesting that the observed movements constitute rotations rather than random dispersion. From 1991/1994 to 1997/2000, the mean number of seals counted at haulout sites increased by 7%, close to the rates of increase observed in the core population of the British Isles at the same period. The Marine National Park may be too restricted for the overall conservation of the population but management plans should be aimed at preserving the characteristics of the habitat for the grey seal.     

Land use effects on gross nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, and N2O emissions in ephemeral wetlands

Stable ¹⁵N isotope dilution and tracer techniques were used in cultivated (C) and uncultivated (U) ephemeral wetlands in central Saskatchewan, Canada to: (1) quantify gross mineralization and nitrification rates and (2) estimate the relative proportion of N₂O emissions from these wetlands that could be attributed to denitrification versus nitrification-related processes. In-field incubation experiments were repeated in early May, mid-June and late July. Mean gross mineralization and nitrification rates (10.3 and 3.1 mg kg⁻¹ d⁻¹, respectively) did not differ between C and U wetlands on any given date. Despite these similarities, the mean NH₄⁺ pool size in the U wetlands (17.2 mg kg⁻¹) was two to three times that of the C wetlands (6.7 mg kg⁻¹) whereas the mean NO₃⁻ pool size in U wetlands (2.2 mg kg⁻¹) was less than half that of C wetlands (5.8 mg kg⁻¹). Mean N₂O emissions from the C wetlands decreased from 112.8 to 17.0 ng N₂O m² s⁻¹ from May to July, whereas mean U-wetland N₂O emissions ranged only from 31.8 to 51.1 ng N₂O m² s⁻¹ over the same period. This trend is correlated to water-filled pore space in C wetlands, demonstrating a soil moisture influence on emissions. Denitrification is generally considered the dominant emitter of N₂O under anaerobic conditions, but in the C wetlands, only 49% of the May emissions could be directly attributed to denitrification, decreasing to 29% in July. In contrast, more than 75% of the N₂O emissions from the U wetlands arose from denitrification of the soil NO₃⁻ pool throughout the season. These land use differences in emission sources and rates should be taken into consideration when planning management strategies for greenhouse gas mitigation.     

Small mammals in agricultural landscapes of Prince Edward Island (Canada): Effects of habitat characteristics at three different spatial scales

We examined the influence of habitat characteristics at the microhabitat, macrohabitat, and landscape spatial scales on small mammals occurring in 12 forest patches within four agricultural landscapes of Prince Edward Island (Canada). Landscape features were important determinants of small mammal variables at all levels, but especially at the community level, whereas microhabitat characteristics tended to influence small mammals at the population level. Macrohabitat characteristics had only minor effects on small mammals occurring in our study sites. Species richness was most strongly influenced by patch area, reaching a threshold at forest patches of roughly 8-10 ha. The proportions of both forest and hedgerow cover within 400 m from the study site were also significant determinants of small mammals species diversity, possibly reflecting their ability to perceive suitable habitats, forage in areas outside the forest patches, and/or disperse in agricultural landscapes. At least one small mammal species (Napaeozapus insignis) benefitted from the presence of agricultural fields at distances up to 1000 m. Tamias striatus benefitted from the presence of hedgerow cover within 400 m from forest patches, possibly allowing them to move between forest patches. Clearly, the maintenance of forest patches of 8-10 ha and of forest cover within 400 m from them is fundamental for the conservation of small mammals inhabiting agricultural landscapes on the Island. Conservation strategies should also consider the establishment of more effective regulations to prevent and/or reduce hedgerow removal on Prince Edward Island.     

Habitat management of little terns in Japan’s highly developed landscape

The little tern (Sterna albifrons) is a species of shorebird that nests in colonies on sandy beaches and riverbanks with little vegetation cover. In Japan, the natural breeding habitats of the terns have decreased drastically, and the species is listed under the category “vulnerable” in the Red List of the Government of Japan. To reduce the effects of habitat loss on the terns, conservationists are attempting to create and manage artificial colony sites in highly developed landscapes, such as reclaimed lands located in Tokyo Bay, central Japan. We present the factors that contribute to breeding success for this species and the habitat characteristics related to nest-site selection in the artificial colony sites along Tokyo Bay. Our data show that around 3 ha of a building rooftop without vegetation cover could sustain more than 2000 little tern nests. We found a strong positive relationship between colony size and hatching success, observing that a colony size of more than 100 lowered predation rates of eggs. On sites built upon white crushed-concrete, nest densities were high and predation rates of eggs were low. We also found that feeding rates were affected by foraging habitats, of which the best types were the shoreline of sandy beaches and mud flats. The 40 km dispersal range of the breeding terns, inferred from distribution data, should be considered when establishing a network of the multiple colony sites.