Effect of spatial scale of soil data on estimates of soil ecosystem services: Case study in 100 km2 area in France

Over the last decade, the ecosystem services (ESs) framework has been increasingly used to support mapping and assessment studies for sustainable land management purposes. Previous analysis of practical applications has revealed the significance of the spatial scale at which input data are obtained. This issue is particularly problematic with soil data that are often unavailable or available only at coarse scales or resolutions in various part of the world. In this context, four soil-based ecosystem services, namely biomass provision, water provision, global climate regulation, and water quality regulation, are assessed using three conventional soil maps at the 1:1,000,000, 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scales. The resulting individual and joint ES maps are then compared to examine the effects of changing the spatial scale of soil data on the ES levels and spatial patterns. ES levels are finally aggregated to landforms, land use, or administrative levels in order to try to identify the determinants of the sensitivity of ES levels to change in the scale of input soil data. Whereas the three soil maps turn out to be equally useful whenever ESs levels averaged over the whole 100 km² territory are needed, the maps at the 1:1,000,000 and 1:250,000 induced biases in the assessment of ESs levels over spatial units smaller than 100 and 10 km², respectively. The simplification of the diversity and spatial distribution of soils at the two coarsest scales indeed resulted in local differences in ES levels ranging from several 10 to several 100%. Identification of the optimal representation of soil diversity and distribution to obtain a reliable representation of ESs spatial distribution is not straightforward. The ESs sensitivity to scale effect is indeed context-specific, variable among individual ESs, and not directly or simply linked with the soil typological diversity represented in soil maps. Forested and natural lands in the study area appear particularly sensitive to soil data scales as they occupy marginal soils showing very specific ESs signatures.     

Digital mapping of soil ecosystem services in Scotland using neural networks and relationship modelling. Part 2: Mapping of soil ecosystem services

A framework for estimating the distribution of soil ecosystem service (ES) supply is described that is based on the concept of matrix multiplication. This approach enables relationships between fundamental soil variables and associated environmental characteristics to be linked to soil processes, and hence to ecosystem functions and ecosystem services. The parameterization of these relationships was achieved using a combination of data from the Scottish Soils Database and expert knowledge. Baseline data to allow mapping of processes, functions and services across Scotland is given by digital maps of soil classes. The matrix multiplication approach constrains the relationship linkages to linear relationships and ignores potential synergies between factors at each stage, but does provide a mechanism for relating fundamental soil characteristics to ecosystem services. The approach has been tested by developing maps of selected ecosystem services in Scotland and comparing these with existing maps of the same or similar ESs. While the values and their ranges differ in each case, the spatial distribution of services is similar. The proposed mechanism is extensible at every level and can also be used to explore the impacts of land management options on environmental characteristics. This is demonstrated by using the model to estimate impacts of liming on three ecosystem services: Agricultural Capability, Carbon Sequestration and Drinking Water Provision. The model is shown to produce reasonable estimation of the impacts of this management option. Further discussion of improvements to the system and its potential applications is given.     

Forest conversion and provision of ecosystem services in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The importance of quantifying existing ecosystem services, assessing the impacts of various land use decisions and ultimately evaluating the overall costs and benefits of different land use patterns having internalized ecosystem services, is now widely recognized and such work is at the forefront of current landscape management planning. We aim to quantify ecosystem services derived from different land uses within the Atibainha Reservoir catchment in Brazil, determine the spatial distribution of ecosystem services and quantify the impacts of land use changes on the provision of ecosystem services. Four ecosystem services were considered: carbon sequestration, mitigation of sediment delivery into the reservoir, purification of water and maintenance of soil fertility. Results indicate strong increase in the provision of ecosystem services among the main land uses in the following order: urban area/bare soil; pastures; plantation of eucalyptus and native forests. The most important services provided by native forests, when compared with bare soil, were carbon sequestration and prevention of sedimentation, with an additional 864 569 tons of carbon stored in forest biomass in 30 years, and prevention of 244 511 tons of sediment delivery into the reservoir per year, respectively, from 7624 ha of lands around the reservoir. Spatial variation in the provision of ecosystem services were mapped to develop a tool to support decision making at the landscape scale. Results and maps from the decision support tool can support policies that ensure effective land‐use planning and can serve as the basis for the development of payment for ecosystem service schemes in the region. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Capacity constraints in operationalisation of payment for ecosystem services (PES) in India: Evidence from land degradation

The understanding of the requirement for PES and necessary capacity of stakeholders to conceive, design and execute PES, are critical to its successful operationalisation. Identification and assessment of capacity needs are also prerequisite for PES especially in a developing country like India where institutional setting and functioning are far from the desirable level. In this background, the paper begins with an introduction of the basic concept and centrality of economic valuation in PES. Next, the paper discusses the status of the land degradation problem in India and how the PES can prove to be an efficient tool to manage the declining ecosystem services due to increasing land degradation in the Country. By identifying the direct and indirect drivers of land degradation, the stage is set for designing of appropriate response options for halting the degradation of land which is not only the base of agrarian economy of India but source of livelihood options for the poor. In the subsequent section, the paper assesses the required capacity to operationalise PES in the states where the problem of land degradation is acute. This has been done on the basis of wider consultation with land users (farmers), conservation agencies, Departments of Land Agriculture and related R&D agencies through a structured questionnaire in group meetings in different parts of the Country during 2006–2007. The necessary capacity on behalf of stakeholders like the Local, State and National level institutions have been mapped out. The result from the survey suggests that while the capacity to understand the ecosystem services is adequate, the capacity to do valuation of incremental change in the ecosystem services is not sufficient and the State still needs to invest significant amount of resources before this tool can be used to manage the land based ecosystem services in India. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

干旱内陆河流域生态系统服务空间权衡与协同作用分析

为了测度生态系统服务的空间权衡/协同关系,该文以干旱内陆河流域典型地区嘉峪关-酒泉地区为研究区,对其2000年和2010年食物供给、碳储存、水源涵养和土壤保持4种生态系统服务物质量进行定量测算.利用相关分析法和空间热点制图等方法,分析了生态系统服务时空变化,从县域尺度和区域尺度上分析了生态系统服务之间的权衡协同关系,识别了某种服务的物质量或价值量极高的热点区.结果表明:研究区单位面积食物供给的高值区分布在中东部的肃州区及嘉峪关市,碳储存表现为东部及南部较高的分布格局;土壤保持在2000年和2010年变化不大,呈现出从西到东逐渐增大的分布趋势;单位面积水源涵养值由2000年的0.40mm/(m2·a)提高到2010年的0.99mm/(m2·a).县域尺度上,各种生态系统服务之间大多为协同关系,其中食物-碳和水源-碳之间的协同程度较高;区域尺度上,食物供给和土壤保持、水源涵养和土壤保持生态系统服务间存在此消彼长的权衡关系.4种生态系统服务的值均未超过各自平均值的0类服务区和只有1种生态系统服务的值超过其所对应平均值的1类服务区分别占总面积的58.50%和25.20%.该研究结果可为制定差别化的区域发展与生态保护双赢政策提供科学参考.     

北京湾过渡带生态系统服务梯度效应分析及生态分区

北京湾过渡带兼具山地-平原和乡村-城市的双重过渡性,生态系统服务的供给存在显著的梯度效应。该研究在对9种典型生态系统服务评估的基础上,研究了北京湾过渡带生态系统服务随植被覆盖度和土地开发程度变化的梯度效应,进而对研究区进行了生态分区并识别各分区主导的生态系统服务类型。结果表明:生态系统服务的形成过程和影响因素各不相同,导致各生态系统服务的分布存在较大的空间差异性。除休闲游憩外,大多生态系统服务随植被覆盖度和土地开发程度呈现出明显的梯度效应。总体来说,食物供给和水质调节随植被覆盖度的提高而降低,随土地开发程度的提高而增加;其他生态系统服务则相反。各生态系统服务随植被覆盖度变化的突变点的范围为0.45～0.56,随土地开发程度的突变点的范围为15%～31%。基于植被覆盖度和土地开发程度的突变点将北京湾过渡带划为4个生态分区:自然或半自然区域、半自然区域、半人工-半自然区域和人工区域。自然区域以调节服务为主,人工区域以供给服务为主,半自然区域和半人工-半自然区域二者兼具,但各有侧重,且体现出一定过渡性。结合现有规划内容,提出不同生态分区生态系统服务的优化管理策略,以促进当地生态系统的可持续发展。     

陇东黄土高原农田生态系统服务及其权衡协同关系

陇东黄土高原是中国农耕文明发祥地之一,探究其农田生态系统服务及其权衡协同关系对于维持农田生态系统多功能性,促进耕地保护、保障粮食安全具有重要价值。为了厘清其农田生态系统服务之间的权衡协同关系,该研究基于社会经济与资源环境数据,运用降水贮存量法、通用土壤流失方程、InVEST 等6种生态系统服务评估模型,测算2020年农田生态系统供给服务（食物供给）、调节服务（水源涵养、碳固存）、支持服务（土壤保持、生境维持）和文化服务（美学景观）的物理量,并采用皮尔逊相关系数、双变量莫兰指数,分别识别供给服务与其他3类服务之间的权衡协同关系、各项服务之间关系的空间异质性。结果表明：1）研究区农田生态系统食物供给、水源涵养、碳固存、土壤保持服务物质量分别为4.61×10⁶ t、2.45×10⁸ m³、2.94×10⁶ t、6.61×10⁹ t,生境质量服务均值为0.26;供给服务与文化服务均呈“东西高、中北低”的分布格局,调节服务与支持服务则呈“带状”分布格局。2）研究区农田生态系统供给服务与调节、支持、文化服务之间以及食物供给服务与水源涵养、碳固存、土壤保持、生境维持、美学景观服务之间均表现为不同程度的协同关系。3） 研究区农田生态系统4类服务之间、各项子服务之间的权衡协同关系均具有空间自相关性,空间异质性显著。各项服务之间的协同关系“组团”出现在陇东中北部地区,聚集性较明显;各项服务之间的权衡关系则零散分布,聚集性不明显。因此,应全力维持陇东黄土高原农田生态系统多功能性,实施分区管理策略,充分发挥农田生态系统各类服务的协同效应,整体提升农田生态系统服务功能（特别是食物供给服务）,巩固新时代“陇东粮仓”地位。     

农牧交错带禁牧草地生态系统服务空间权衡与协同关系

为明确农牧交错带禁牧草地生态系统主要服务间的相互作用关系,以宁夏盐池县草地为研究对象,借助本地化的InVEST模型,对禁牧以来（2000－2015年）草地碳储存、水源涵养、土壤保持3项关键服务进行精准测度,明确其时空变化特征,以此为基础,通过逐像元相关系数法对3种服务间的权衡作用进行定量可视化表达,分析乡镇尺度各服务间的空间权衡与协同关系。结果表明：1）禁牧以来,草地生态系统碳储存、水源涵养和土壤保持功能显著增加,但增加过程存在一个显著的“N”型波动,碳储存总量及单位面积均值由217.46万t、5.78 t/hm2增加到263.12万t、6.19 t/hm2;水源涵养总量及单位面积均值由2 884万t、76.69 t/hm2增加到6 118万t、143.92 t/hm2;土壤保持总量及单位面积均值由1 383万t、36.78 t/hm2增加到3 474万t、81.71 t/hm2。碳储存功能与草地覆被关系密切,年际波动小、增长稳定,水源涵养和土壤保持功能受降水和地形显著影响,年际波动大、空间差异显著。2）草地土壤保持与水源涵养功能呈显著的空间协同关系（面积占86.34%）,碳储存与水源涵养功能关系复杂,空间权衡与协同关系不显著（面积分别占47.66%和52.34%）,碳储存与土壤保持功能呈空间协同关系（面积占69.55%）。通过定量可视化评估草地生态系统各服务间的空间权衡与协同关系,可为草地生态系统优化提供科学依据,为草地资源管理提供参考。     

长江中游生态系统服务供需平衡与居民福祉耦合的时空特征

生态系统服务供给、需求与居民福祉的相互复杂关系是自然生态系统和社会经济系统研究中重要的交叉科学问题,也是生态系统服务和居民福祉研究的热点难点问题和矛盾多发领域。然而,已有研究更为关注生态系统服务供给对居民福祉的贡献,忽视了生态系统服务需求以及供需平衡对居民福祉的影响。选择长江中游地区作为研究靶区和2000—2018年作为研究时段,建立生态系统服务供需量化矩阵测度生态系统服务供需平衡,采用年度组合赋权法和线性函数加权法评估居民福祉,引入弹性系数模型划分生态系统服务供需平衡与居民福祉耦合关系类型,并进一步研究其时空特征。结果表明：1）生态系统服务供需平衡与居民福祉耦合关系可划分为“供需改善－福祉增加”“供需恶化－福祉增加”“供需改善－福祉减少”以及“供需恶化－福祉减少”4种,分别对应最优、次优、次差以及最差耦合关系类型;2）长江中游地区生态系统服务供需平衡与居民综合福祉耦合关系表现为以权衡关系为主导且逐渐增强,其中“供需恶化－福祉增加”县域单元占比由2000—2010年的81.99%增至2010—2018年的91.57%;3）生态系统服务供需平衡与居民福祉耦合关系会随着福祉类型、服务类型、空间尺度、时间范围、经济社会发展水平等表现出不同形式的反馈。长江中游地区各县域单元和有关部门应当结合地区自然地理条件、经济发展水平等多方面因素,因地制宜、因时制宜地推进生态环境保护与修复工程,尽可能地规避“生态诅咒”或“生态魔咒”效应,充分发挥经济社会发展过程中的“生态祝福”效应。     

Does altered rainfall regime change pesticide effects in soil? A terrestrial model ecosystem study from Mediterranean Portugal on the effects of pyrimethanil to soil microbial communities under extremes in rainfall

In this century, agroecosystems are subjected to multiple global change stressors acting in concert such as alterations in rainfall regimes and pesticide use. Alterations in rainfall regimes, characterised by more extreme intra-annual rainfall regimes, have been forecasted for the Mediterranean region. At the same time, the use of pesticides continues to rise. Here, we report the responses of soil microbial community to a model pesticide, i.e., fungicide pyrimethanil (PYR) under altered rainfall regimes (i.e., drought and heavy rainfall) two and eight weeks after PYR application. We measured the functional responses as enzyme activities, potential nitrification and BIOLOG carbon substrate utilisation. We also characterised the soil bacterial communities using polymerase chain reaction–denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR–DGGE) method. After two weeks, enzyme activities were mainly responsive to PYR and kinetic parameters, calculated from BIOLOG carbon substrate utilisation, indicated interaction effects from PYR and rain treatments. Bacterial band richness increased with PYR treatment under normal rain and drought regimes, but bacterial band richness was higher at 1X than 5X PYR under heavy rainfall. Bacterial community structure was also different with the PYR and rainfall treatments. By week eight, PYR treated soils remained functionally different from untreated soils. Bacterial band richness was consistent across PYR treatment regardless of rain regime. However, the bacterial community structure remained significantly different among the PYR treatments under different rain regimes. We conclude that rainfall extremes can alter the effect of PYR on the soil microbial community structure without altering PYR effects on soil functions (measured as enzyme activities, potential nitrification and BIOLOG carbon substrate utilisation).     

黍族植物的叶片扩张和蒸腾作用对土壤水分亏缺的响应特征

Plant processes, such as leaf expansion, stomatal conductance and transpiration, are affected by soil water, particularly in water-stressed environments. Quantifying the effects of soil water on plant processes, especially leaf expansion and transpiration, could be useful for crop modeling. In order to quantify the leaf expansion and transpiration in response to soil water deficit in three millet species, common (Panicum miliaceum L.), pearl (Pennisetum glaucum L.) and foxtail (Setaria italica L.) millets, a pot experiment was performed at the Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran. The soil water status was characterized by the fraction of transpirable soil water (FTSW). Leaf area and transpiration were measured daily. Relative leaf area expansion (RL) and relative transpiration (RT) data were plotted against FTSW. Finally the FTSW thresholds for RL and RT were calculated using linear-plateau and logistic models. The results showed that the thresholds for RL and RT were 0.68 and 0.62, respectively, based on all measured data of the three millet species using the linear-plateau model, indicating that RL and RT were constant when FTSW decreased from 1 to the threshold point. Thereafter, until FTSW = 0, RL and RT declined linearly with a slope of 1.48 and 1.43, respectively. Although millet is cultivated as a resistant crop in arid, semiarid and marginal lands, it showed an early response to soil water deficit at high FTSW thresholds. As leaf expansion and transpiration can be considered morphological and physiological variables, respectively, the results in this study indicate that millet has strong morphological flexibility when faced with soil water deficit.     

基于生态系统服务和PSO-SOFM神经网络的中亚水土热资源匹配分区

水土热资源匹配度分区研究对于区域农业规划具有重要意义。中亚地区长期以来缺乏合理的水土热资源管理,已引发了一系列资源环境问题,严重威胁该地区农业生产。目前的研究也较少关注中亚水土热资源匹配分区模式。本研究利用遥感数据,通过量化4种主要生态系统服务(植被固碳、土壤保持、水源供给与涵养及生物多样性保护)的时空分布特征,结合PSO-SOFM(particleswarm optimization,PSO;self-organizing featuremap,SOFM)神经网络模型实现中亚水土热资源匹配度分区,并利用Spearman秩相关分析探索不同匹配度分区与生态环境因子的关系,应用偏相关分析确定气温和降水量对中亚地区生态系统服务的影响。结果表明,中亚生态系统服务总体呈东南高、西北低的空间格局,沿山地—绿洲—荒漠方向递减。在2000—2015年间,各类生态系统服务均有不同程度变化,其中植被固碳和土壤保持呈显著下降的面积占整个中亚的84.81%和84.82%;水源供给与涵养以及生物多样性保护服务呈显著下降的面积较少,占比分别为69.48%和19.8%,且这两种生态系统服务在个别地区有增加趋势。PSO-SOFM神经网络模型在中亚水土热资源匹配度分区中表现良好,根据生态系统服务值空间模式,中亚水土热资源匹配度可被划为5大类21个子类分区。在空间尺度,各类匹配度分区之间生态系统服务值有显著差异,降水是影响生态系统服务和匹配度高低的重要限制因子,而气温和土壤因素影响较弱;在时间尺度,降水和各生态系统服务值间呈显著正相关关系的范围更广,而气温对生态系统服务值有显著影响的区域主要集中在哈萨克斯坦北部草地—半荒漠生态敏感区、中亚荒漠生态脆弱区、中亚中部半荒漠生态敏感区以及巴特赫兹—卡拉比尔半荒漠生态敏感区等地。而在其他区域,气温和降水量并非决定生态系统服务值高低的主要因素,生态系统服务值的变化可能与土地开发利用模式有关。结合不同匹配度分区的生态地理条件,本研究可为中亚地区水土资源开发利用、农牧业发展以及生态环境保护提供有用信息。     

山西省城镇化与生态系统服务时空相关性及空间效应分析

为深入探究城镇化对生态系统服务价值的驱动因素以及生态系统服务空间溢出效应,以山西省县域为研究单元,基于2000—2018年土地利用数据、社会经济数据构建生态系统服务价值和城镇化水平综合评价体系,通过双变量空间自相关分析县域城镇化与生态系统服务价值相关性的空间特征。结果表明:研究期间山西省生态系统服务价值整体呈下降趋势,城镇化综合水平虽有显著提高,但整体偏低。研究区城镇化和生态系统服务价值之间存在显著的负相关关系,呈U形发展趋势。空间计量模型结果表明,城镇化率、建成区面积与生态系统服务呈显著负相关,人均社会消费品零售总额、城镇化水平的平方项与生态系统服务呈显著正相关。生态系统服务价值对邻近县域产生正向的溢出效应,在控制其他解释变量不变的前提下,相邻县域生态价值每提高1%将对本县域产生0.243%的促进作用。研究区生态系统服务具有整体性和不稳定性,使各县域政府丧失自身环境保护的积极性。     

不同土地利用结构生态系统服务功能价值的变化研究——以内蒙古自治区伊金霍洛旗为例

生态系统服务功能价值理论可定量估算各类生态系统为人类提供服务的经济价值。阐述了生态系统服务功能价值理论定量评价土地资源的作用 ,并应用和修正生态系统服务单价方法估算内蒙古自治区伊金霍洛旗1990～ 2 0 0 0年土地利用的生态效益 ,结果表明 10年内该旗生态系统服务价值减少 2 2 6 96亿元 ,证明人类经济发展对生态环境的影响巨大 ,且一旦生态环境遭到破坏则很难恢复。     

The adverse effects of soil salinization on the growth of Trifolium alexandrinum L. and associated microbial and biochemical properties in a soil from Iran

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of increasing concentrations of salt solutions (including 0.12, 2, 6, and 10 dS m⁻¹) on the growth of berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) and related soil microbial activity, biomass and enzyme activities. Results showed that the dry weights of root and shoot decreased with an increase in the concentrations of salt solutions. Soil salinization depressed the microbiological activities including soil respiration and enzyme activities. Substrate-induced respiration was consistently lower in salinized soils, whereas microbial biomass C did not vary among salinity levels. Higher metabolic quotients (qCO₂) and unaffected microbial biomass C at high EC values may indicate that salinity is a stressful factor, inducing either a shift in the microbial community with less catabolic activity or reduced efficiency of substrate utilization. Acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase activities decreased with increasing soil salinity. We found significant, positive correlations between the activities of phosphatase enzymes and plant's root mass, suggesting that any decrease in the activities of the two enzymes could be attributed to the reduced root biomass under saline conditions.     

Effect of air flow rate,lime amendments,and chemical soil properties on the volatilization of ammonia from fertilizers applied to sandy soils

NH₃ volatilization from surface-applied urea, diammonium phosphate (DAP), and calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) was measured with chambers through which air was drawn continuously. Two sandy soils and two sandy loam soils, which had been treated with and without time for the last 25 years, were used for the experiments. The accumulated NH₃ loss from CAN applied to an unlimed sandy soil was linearly related to time. For the other treatments the accumulated loss was exponentially related to time. The NH₃ loss was exponentially related to the maximum soil pH of the fertilizer-amended soil, and was inversely related to the content of exchangeable H⁺. Due to the low cation exchange capacity of these light-textured soils the NH₃ loss was not reduced as the soil CEC increased. The maximum pH after soil amendment was related to soil pH. Therefore, a model is proposed that relates the NH₃ loss solely to fertilizers and soil pH. The NH₃ loss was less than 5% from CAN, about 20% from DAP, and about 30% from urea, with the insignificant loss from urea applied to the unlimed sandy soil excluded. The NH₃ loss from surface-applied DAP was related to the air flow rate and a transfer coefficient (K _a) was estimated. K _a increased exponentially with the flow rate. At a flow rate above 3.9 liters min^–1 (20 volume exchanges min^–1) no further increase was seen.