Moisture content thresholds for ignition and rate of fire spread for various dead fuels in northeast forest ecosystems of China

Fuel moisture content is one of the important factors that determine ignition probability and fire behaviour in forest ecosystems. In this study, ignition and fire spread moisture content thresholds of 40 dead fuel were performed in laboratory experiments, with a focus on the source of ignition and wind speed. Variability in fuel moisture content at time of ignition and during fire spread was observed for different fuels. Matches were more efficient to result in ignition and spread fire with high values of fuel moisture content compared to the use of cigarette butts. Some fuels did not ignite at 15% moisture content, whereas others ignited at 40% moisture content and fire spread at 38% moisture content in the case of matches, or ignited at 27% moisture content and spread fire at 25% moisture content using cigarette butts. A two-way ANOVA showed that both the source of ignition and the wind speed affected ignition and fire spread threshold significantly, but there was no interaction between these factors. The relationship between ignition and fire spread was strong, with R2 = 98% for cigarette butts, and 92% for matches. Further information is needed, especially on the density of fuels, fuel proportion(case of mixed fuels), fuel age, and fuel combustibility.     

THE ESTIMATE OF THE EFFECTIVE FUEL COMBUSTION VALUE OF FOREST COMMUNITY IN THE DAXINGAN MOUNTAIN

FoRESTFUELCoMBUSTIoNVALUECombustionvalueisanimportantparameterofmaterialburningcharacteri-stics.Itmeansthattheheatreleasesfromtheunitofmaterialcompleteburningtocooldownthestartingtemperatureofreactionmaterals(l).Undertheconditionofthesamepressureandenoughoxygeninthecombustor,materialscombustionva1ueisrelatedtotheinnerenergyofthematerialstatefromthebeginningtotheendduringreaction.Thecombustionvaluesuchasmeta1,carbon,hydrogencanbemeasuredaccurate1y.Toforestfuels,theirenergycan'tbethesam…     

森林可燃物管理研究进展

立地条件、天气和可燃物决定了森林火灾的强度与烈度, 三大因素中, 只有对可燃物能进行有效的经营管理。研究表明:1)过去60~100年, 由于森林结构和组成的改变, 可燃物载量增加, 易发生高强度的森林火灾。2)林火模型、实践经验以及现场观察表明, 在特定的天气条件下, 林火行为受可燃物结构与组成的影响很大。3)减少重特大森林火灾的发生就必须降低地表可燃物的数量、密度、连续性, 移除过度可燃物, 或改造植被, 降低森林植被的燃烧性等。4)可燃物处理有效期评估涉及林火蔓延、林火强度、烈度、火场规模和扑火能力的研究, 景观尺度手段优于林分尺度。     

Characterization of forest fires in Catalonia (north-east Spain)

The present study analyses the temporal variation in the distribution of the number of fires, area burned and fire sizes in Catalonia using fire data from 1942 to 2002. The study shows variations in the distribution of fire size over recent decades, with a significant increase in the number of very large fires. The study also analyses relationships between characteristics of the forest (altitude, slope, aspect, living fuels and species composition) and the probability of the fire occurrence. The analysis is based on the overlay of forest cover data and perimeters of forest fires during the period (1986–2002). Of the analysed variables, altitude affects most the probability of fire occurrence, with higher proportions of burned forest area at lower altitudes. Stand’s vertical structure is also relevant, with lower proportions of burned area in stands with mature tree cover without understory. The study helps to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of forest and fire management policies, especially those related to forest and fuel management at the landscape level.     

森林可燃物含水率及其预测模型研究进展

森林可燃物是森林火灾发生的物质基础,其含水率的变化直接影响森林可燃物着火的难易程度。高效准确地模拟森林可燃物含水率动态变化的规律,对预测预报林火发生或林火行为具有重要意义。文中从可燃物含水率的影响因子、理论算法、预测模型3个方面阐述了森林可燃物含水率及其预测模型研究进展;指出了研究存在的问题;提出了可燃物含水率研究展望:加强野外定位观测研究,优化测定方法并强化野外采样和室内试验标准化工作,加强可燃物含水率时空异质性研究,加强观测尺度外推问题研究并构建含水率遥感反演模型。     

森林火灾中的树冠火研究

森林火灾按其燃烧物和燃烧部位的不同, 通常可分为地表火、树冠火和地下火3种。树冠火是指在林冠层燃烧和蔓延的火, 通常与地表火同时发生。树冠火发生数量不多, 但其燃烧温度高、火强度大、蔓延速度快, 对森林的破坏性极大。从树冠火的发生机制、蔓延模型、扑救方法、预防和减弱树冠火发生及蔓延危险性的措施几方面对当前国内外树冠火的研究进展进行了综述, 并对今后的研究方向进行了展望。     

持续干旱对森林火灾的影响研究综述

文章通过对干旱定义和对干旱等级的划分,从持续干旱对森林可燃物、火源和林火行为等方面,综合分析了持续干旱对森林火灾的影响。结果表明,持续干旱会降低可燃物的含水率,使可燃物载量和分布发生变化,对森林可燃物有较大影响;持续干旱还会影响火源,使林火强度增大,林火蔓延速度加快,火烈度增大,提高森林火灾发生的几率和森林火灾的强度。     

中国南方冰雪灾害对森林火灾火发生短期影响分析——以湖南为例

以湖南省为研究区域,分析冰雪后短期内(3月份)卫星热点的空间分布特征、与受害程度的空间关系,森林火灾发生的特点和扑火人员伤亡情况,以及气象因素对火发生的影响.结果表明:处于受害区确认为森林火灾的卫星热点占总数的61.00%.2008年3月份火灾次数和过火面积异常增高,共发生火灾3 097起,过火面积23 227.68 hm2,火灾次数超过1999-2007年3月份火灾次数的总和,且是1999-2007年3月份火灾次数总和的120.65%,3月份平均火灾次数的10.86倍.过火面积是1999-2007年3月份总和的88.40%,3月份平均过火面积的4.69倍.人员伤亡40人,是1999-2007年3月份人员伤亡总和的72.73%,平均伤亡人数的6.56倍.冰雪灾害后,2008年3月火灾次数、过火面积和人员伤亡人数的异常增高已经超出了气温和降水对火发生正常影响的范围.     

南方8种森林地表死可燃物在平地无风时的燃烧蔓延速率与预测模型

【目的】研究Rothermel林火蔓延速率预测模型及另外2种以Rothermel模型为核心的蔓延速率预测模型对南方8种典型森林地表死可燃物的适用性,为林火蔓延速率预测提供理论支撑和指导。【方法】以南方地区8种典型速率地表死可燃物为对象,根据研究对象的野外实际条件,在东北林业大学帽儿山实验林场风洞实验室内,构建不同可燃物床层含水率、载量及高度的可燃物床层,每种可燃物在平地无风条件下进行36次点烧试验,共288次点烧,记录每种可燃物类型不同配比条件下的蔓延速率。通过直接使用Rothermel模型、重新估计Rothermel模型参数、对Rothermel模型形式改进后自建模型的对比,得到最合适的预测模型。【结果】 1)平地无风条件下,南方8种典型森林地表死可燃物床层最大蔓延速率为0.55 m ·min -1 ,平均蔓延速率由大到小依次为:华山松、云南松、毛竹、柳杉、杉木、马尾松、麻栎及青冈栎。2)直接使用Rothermel模型预测的林火蔓延速率误差较大,平均绝对误差为0.18 m ·min -1 ,平均相对误差为70.0%。3)重新估计参数后的Rothermel模型及自建模型,预测的可燃物蔓延速率精度显著提高,平均绝对误差分别为0.04、0.037 m ·min -1 ,平均相对误差分别<18%、16.45%。4)重新估计参数的Rothermel模型与自建模型的预测误差的差异不显著,其中自建模型的预测值与实测值的 R 2 变化在0.71~0.90,平均为0.80。【结论】对南方8种典型森林的地表死可燃物类型,在平地无风条件下,重新估计参数的Rothermel模型及自建模型的预测精度相近,但自建模型可能更简单易用,可预测平地无风条件下可燃物地表火蔓延速率。     

Quantifying fine fuel dynamics and structure in dry eucalypt forest (Eucalyptus marginata) in Western Australia for fire management

Techniques for rapid visual assessment of fuel characteristics have a broad range of applications in wildland fire management and research. We developed and tested a technique for assessing forest fuels which provides hazard ratings for distinct layers within the overall fuel complex, including bark, elevated shrubs, near-surface and surface (forest litter) fuels. These layers are comprised predominantly of fine fuel particles <6 mm diameter. The technique was used to model fuel accumulation in dry eucalypt forest of Eucalyptus marginata at two locations with contrasting understorey structures. We found that visual fuel hazard ratings described patterns of fuel dynamics over time in a similar fashion to models for fuel load accumulation. Visual hazard ratings can be related qualitatively to factors that reflect the difficulty of fire suppression by experienced fire fighters including visibility through the forest, access, difficulty of working machinery, flame height and spotting potential. The ability to relate hazard ratings to fire spread prediction needs to be tested.     

Bark beetles,fuels, fires and implications for forest management in the Intermountain West

Bark beetle-caused tree mortality in conifer forests affects the quantity and quality of forest fuels and has long been assumed to increase fire hazard and potential fire behavior. In reality, bark beetles, and their effects on fuel accumulation, and subsequent fire hazard, are poorly understood. We extensively sampled fuels in three bark beetle-affected Intermountain conifer forests and compared these data to existing research on bark beetle/fuels/fire interactions within the context of the disturbance regime. Data were collected in endemic, epidemic and post-epidemic stands of Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce. From these data, we evaluated the influence of bark beetle-caused tree mortality on various fuels characteristics over the course of a bark beetle rotation. The data showed that changes in fuels over time create periods where the potential for high intensity and/or severe fires increases or decreases. The net result of bark beetle epidemics was a substantial change in species composition and a highly altered fuels complex. Early in epidemics there is a net increase in the amount of fine surface fuels when compared to endemic stands. In post-epidemic stands large, dead, woody fuels, and live surface fuels dominate. We then discuss potential fire behavior in bark beetle-affected conifer fuels based on actual and simulated fuels data. Results indicated that for surface fires both rates of fire spread and fireline intensities were higher in the current epidemic stands than in the endemic stands. Rates of spread and fireline intensities were higher in epidemic stands due, however, to decreased vegetative sheltering and its effect on mid-flame wind speed, rather than changes in fuels. Passive crown fires were more likely in post-epidemic stands, but active crown fires were less likely due to decreased aerial fuel continuity. We also discuss the ecological effects of extreme fire behavior. Information is presented on managing forests to reduce the impact of bark beetle outbreaks and the interplay between management, bark beetle populations, fuels and fire hazard and behavior.     

滇中安宁“3.29”重大森林火灾火烧迹地的可燃物特征初步分析

在滇中安宁“3·29”重大森林火灾火烧迹地选择无人为干扰的灌木林设置样地,并与未过火的灌木林进行比较,通过外业调查和实验室测定,研究了可燃物的种类、高度、绝对含水量、载量等特征。结果表明,火烧迹地死可燃物的高度为5．7m,与未过火的活灌木高度5．4m差不多,活灌木平均高度达1．5m;火烧迹地活灌木、死可燃物、CWD的热值及点着温度与未过火样地的差异均不明显;火烧迹地CWD的灰分含量仅为未过火的25．87％;火烧迹地总的可燃物载量为9．07kg/m^2,明显超过了未过火样地7．82kg／m^2。     

木质素降解真菌的筛选及其对森林地表可燃物的降解效果

【目的】筛选帽儿山人工林地表可燃物中的木质素降解真菌,探究木质素降解菌对不同森林地表可燃物的分解效果,以期找到能够有效降解森林可燃物的真菌菌种,为应用生物降解方法降低森林地表可燃物载量从而降低森林火灾发生概率与森林火险指数提供理论依据和基础数据。【方法】采集东北林业大学帽儿山实验林场尖砬沟森林培育实验站的落叶松、胡桃楸、水曲柳纯林与胡桃楸-落叶松、水曲柳-落叶松混交林内的凋落叶,采用添加抗生素的麦芽浸粉(MEA)培养基进行真菌的分离培养,之后采用愈创木酚平板显色法进行初筛,根据测定菌株的显色情况及菌落圈与显色圈比值筛选高活性木质素降解酶菌株,复筛利用苯胺蓝平板脱色法对菌株木质素氧化酶系进行定性测定,对2次筛选获得的菌株进行形态学及分子鉴定,然后以胡桃楸、水曲柳、落叶松3种可燃物样品作为分解基质,接入木质素降解菌单一及混合菌液,于28℃恒温培养7 d,分别测定经培养后基质中的木质素含量,分析木质素分解规律。【结果】由MEA培养基筛选出的9株真菌有5株在PDA-愈创木酚培养基上发生了显色反应,且菌株B6和Y3的R/r <1,即该2株菌能优先降解木质素;苯胺蓝平板脱色试验结果显示菌株B6和Y3均可使培养基蓝色褪去,即均具有LiP与MnP酶活性;经形态学及分子鉴定,菌株B6为白囊耙齿菌Irpex lacteus,菌株Y3为桦褶孔菌Lenzites betulinus;地表可燃物样品降解试验结果显示,经单一菌液与两者混合菌液培养后,样品中木质素含量均有下降,且经混合菌液处理后的3种可燃物基质表现出相对较好的降解效果;3种基质降解率从高到低依次为水曲柳>胡桃楸>落叶松;菌种Y3对木质素的降解效果较菌种B6好。【结论】混合菌液对可燃物中木质素的分解能力较单一菌液强;菌株B6和Y3之间无拮抗作用,混合后产生协同效应,使木质素降解酶系活力提高,从而可提高木质素降解率;菌种Y3降解能力强于B6;可燃物样品中木质素降解效果因基质不同而存在差异,阔叶可燃物比针叶可燃物易分解。经筛选出的木质素降解菌能有效降解可燃物中的木质素,可在一定程度上减少森林地表可燃物载量,从而降低森林火灾风险。     

The effects of sudden oak death on foliar moisture content and crown fire potential in tanoak

The introduction of non-native pathogens can have profound effects on forest ecosystems resulting in loss of species, changes in species composition, and altered fuel structure. The introduction of Phytophthora ramorum, the pathogen recognized as causing Sudden Oak Death (SOD), leads to rapid decline and mortality of tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) in forests of coastal California, USA. We tracked foliar moisture content (FMC) of uninfected tanoaks, SOD-infected tanoaks, SOD-killed (dead) tanoaks, and surface litter for 12 months. We found that FMC values differed significantly among the three categories of infection. FMC of uninfected tanoaks averaged 82.3% for the year whereas FMC of infected tanoaks had a lower average of 77.8% (ANOVA, P = 0.04). Dead trees had a significantly lower FMC, averaging 12.3% (ANOVA, P < 0.01) for the year. During fire season (June–September), dead tanoak FMC reached a low of 5.8%, with no significant difference between dead canopy fuels and surface litter (ANOVA, P = 0.44). Application of low FMC values to a crown ignition model results in extremely high canopy base height values to escape crown ignition. Remote estimation of dead FMC using 10-h timelag fuel moisture shows a strong correlation between remote automated weather station (RAWS) 10-h timelag fuel moisture data and the FMC of dead leaves (R² = 0.78, P < 0.01). Results from this study will help refine the decision support tools for fire managers in SOD-affected areas as well as conditions in other forests where diseases and insect epidemics have altered forest canopy fuels.     

DYNAMIC PREDICION OF FOREST FUEL LOADS BY GREY VERHULST MODEL

INTRODUCTION'Inforn1ahonondvnan1icsofthefoel1oadslslmPOrtantt0bothl1lanagersandresearchersofecologicaleffectsoffire.Theal11ountoffuelconsullledbyfireandthesubsequentpat-ten1ofre-acculnulationoffilel1sln1POrtantf(I)illdeterl11inah0nofthefilelquanhtyftlelpresentatanyh1ne,asweIlasthesteady-stateweightofaccumtIlatedresidues;(2)inpredichngenenyrelease,il1tensityandspreadrateforfirebehaviorforecastandsuppression;(3)illassessingtheeffechvenessofpre-scribedburni11gforftlellnanageme11t,(4)indete…     

Forest fuel mapping and evaluation of LANDFIRE fuel maps in Boulder County,Colorado, USA

A key challenge in modern wildfire mitigation and forest management is accurate mapping of forest fuels in order to determine spatial fire hazard, plan mitigation efforts, and manage active fires. This study quantified forest fuels of the montane zone of Boulder County, CO, USA in an effort to aid wildfire mitigation planning and provide a metric by which LANDFIRE national fuel maps may be compared. Using data from 196 randomly stratified field plots, pre-existing vegetation maps, and derived variables, predictive classification and regression tree models were created for four fuel parameters necessary for spatial fire simulation with FARSITE (surface fuel model, canopy bulk density, canopy base height, and stand height). These predictive models accounted for 56–62% of the variability in forest fuels and produced fuel maps that predicted 91.4% and 88.2% of the burned area of two historic fires simulated in the FARSITE model. Simulations of areas burned based on LANDFIRE national fuel maps were less accurate, burning 77.7% and 40.3% of the historic fire areas. Our results indicate that fuel mapping efforts that utilize local area information and biotic as well as abiotic predictors will more accurately simulate fire spread rates and reflect the inherent variability of forested environments than do current LANDFIRE data products.     

Fire models and methods to map fuel types: The role of remote sensing

Understanding fire is essential to improving forest management strategies. More specifically, an accurate knowledge of the spatial distribution of fuels is critical when analyzing, modelling and predicting fire behaviour. First, we review the main concepts and terminology associated with forest fuels and a number of fuel type classifications. Second, we summarize the main techniques employed to map fuel types starting with the most traditional approaches, such as field work, aerial photo interpretation or ecological modelling. We pay special attention to more contemporary techniques, which involve the use of remote sensing systems. In general, remote sensing systems are low-priced, can be regularly updated and are less time-consuming than traditional methods, but they are still facing important limitations. Recent work has shown that the integration of different sources of information and methods in a complementary way helps to overcome most of these limitations. Further research is encouraged to develop novel and enhanced remote sensing techniques.     

Spatial heterogeneity of dead fuel moisture content in a Larix gmelinii forest in Inner Mongolia using geostatistics

Spatial heterogeneity of fuel moisture content determines the spread rate and direction of a forest fire.Research on the spatial heterogeneity of the moisture content of dead fuel of Larix gmelinii Rupr.showed that:(1) fuel moisture content in litter layer semi-humus layer humus layer,and the coefficient of variation decreased with sampling depth;(2) the sill value of the semi-humus layer was highest,the humus layer moderate,the litter layer the smallest,overall,the spatial heterogeneity of the semi-humus layer was the highest.The humus layer in the slant direction and three layers in a vertical direction showed strong spatial correlation with the lowest nugget coefficient of 0.0968;(3)the fuel moisture content of the humus layer showed strong spatial anisotropy;and,(4) estimating the total moisture content of the sampling site by stimulated sampling reasonable control of the sampling interval,and increasing the sampling intensity can reduce the error.When the sampling intensity is increased to more than 16 and the sampling interval 3 m,the standard error is 15%.The spatial heterogeneity of fuel moisture content is best revealed by increasing sampling density,sampling in different fire seasons,and in different slope directions and positions.The results can provide a scientific basis for forest fire prediction and prevention.     

水喷淋对防火林带枯落物含水率的影响

通过测定防火林带枯落物水喷淋前后含水率的变化,建立枯落物含水率与时间变化曲线模型,得出枯枝和枯叶的含水率与时间变化函数.结果表明,喷淋1 h后林内枯枝、枯叶含水率分别从喷淋前的17.6%、13.1%升至45.9%、59.2%,之后含水率随时间延长逐渐下降;喷淋后,林带内枯枝、枯叶由易燃和可燃状态转变为不燃和难燃状态,并分别维持26.4、23.9 h.1次有效的水喷淋能显著提高林带防火能力.     

Effects of fuel treatments on carbon-disturbance relationships in forests of the northern Rocky Mountains

Fuel treatments alter conditions in forested stands at the time of the treatment and subsequently. Fuel treatments reduce on-site carbon and also change the fire potential and expected outcome of future wildfires, including their carbon emissions. We simulated effects of fuel treatments on 140 stands representing seven major habitat type groups of the northern Rocky Mountains using the Fire and Fuels Extension to the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FFE-FVS). Changes in forest carbon due to mechanical fuel treatment (thinning from below to reduce ladder fuels) and prescribed fire were explored, as well as changes in expected fire behavior and effects of subsequent wildfire. Results indicated that fuel treatments decreased fire severity and crown fire occurrence and reduced subsequent wildfire emissions, but did not increase post-wildfire carbon stored on-site. Conversely, untreated stands had greater wildfire emissions but stored more carbon.