Epilepsy-related ligand/receptor complex LGI1 and ADAM22 regulate synaptic transmission

Abnormally synchronized synaptic transmission in the brain causes epilepsy. Most inherited forms of epilepsy result from mutations in ion channels. However, one form of epilepsy, autosomal dominant partial epilepsy with auditory features (ADPEAF), is characterized by mutations in a secreted neuronal protein, LGI1. We show that ADAM22, a transmembrane protein that when mutated itself causes seizure, serves as a receptor for LGI1. LGI1 enhances AMPA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission in hippocampal slices. The mutated form of LGI1 fails to bind to ADAM22. ADAM22 is anchored to the postsynaptic density by cytoskeletal scaffolds containing stargazin. These studies in rat brain indicate possible avenues for understanding human epilepsy.     

The molecular basis of neuronal excitability

Neurons process and transmit information in the form of electrical signals. Their electrical excitability is due to the presence of voltage-sensitive ion channels in the neuronal plasma membrane. In recent years, the voltage-sensitive sodium channel of mammalian brain has become the first of these important neuronal components to be studied at the molecular level. This article describes the distribution of sodium channels among the functional compartments of the neuron and reviews work leading to the identification, purification, and characterization of this membrane glycoprotein.     

Cellular mechanisms of epilepsy: a status report

The cellular phenomena underlying focal epilepsy are currently understood in the context of contemporary concepts of cellular and synaptic function. Interictal discharges appear to be due to a combination of synaptic events and intrinsic currents, the exact proportion of which in any given neuron may vary according to the anatomic and functional substrate involved in the epileptic discharge and the epileptogenic agent used in a given model. The transition to seizure appears to be due to simultaneous increments in excitatory influences and decrements in inhibitory processes--both related to frequency-dependent neuronal events. A variety of specific hypotheses have been proposed to account for the increased excitability that occurs during epileptiform activity. Although each of the proposed mechanisms is likely to contribute significantly to the epileptic process, no single hypothesis provides an exclusive unifying framework within which all kinds of focal epilepsy can be understood. The spread of epileptic activity throughout the brain, the development of primary generalized epilepsy, the existence of "gating" mechanisms in specific anatomic locations, and the extrapolation of hypotheses derived from simple models of focal epilepsy to explain more complex forms of human epilepsy, all are not yet fully understood.     

Heterologous expression of excitability proteins: route to more specific drugs?

Many clinically important drugs act on the intrinsic membrane proteins (ion channels, receptors, and ion pumps) that control cell excitability. A major goal of pharmacology has been to develop drugs that are more specific for a particular subtype of excitability molecule. DNA cloning has revealed that many excitability proteins are encoded by multigene families and that the diversity of previously recognized pharmacological subtypes is matched, and probably surpassed, by the diversity of messenger RNAs that encode excitability molecules. In general, the diverse subtypes retain their properties when the excitability proteins are expressed in foreign cells such as oocytes and mammalian cell lines. Such heterologous expression may therefore become a tool for testing drugs against specific subtypes. In a systematic research program to exploit this possibility, major considerations include alternative processing of messenger RNA for excitability proteins, coupling to second-messenger systems, and expression of enough protein to provide material for structural studies.     

Structure and function of voltage-sensitive ion channels

Voltage-sensitive ion channels mediate action potentials in electrically excitable cells and play important roles in signal transduction in other cell types. In the past several years, their protein components have been identified, isolated, and restored to functional form in the purified state. Na+ and Ca2+ channels consist of a principal transmembrane subunit, which forms the ion-conducting pore and is expressed with a variable number of associated subunits in different cell types. The principal subunits of voltage-sensitive Na+, Ca2+, and K+ channels are homologous members of a gene family. Models relating the primary structures of these principal subunits to their functional properties have been proposed, and experimental results have begun to define a functional map of these proteins. Coordinated application of biochemical, biophysical, and molecular genetic methods should lead to a clear understanding of the molecular basis of electrical excitability.     

Neuroscience. Stout guards of the central nervous system

Endocannabinoids have paradoxical effects on the mammalian nervous system: Sometimes they block neuronal excitability and other times they augment it. In their Perspective, Mechoulam and Lichtman discuss new work (Marsicano et al.) showing that activation of the cannabinoid receptor CB1 by the endocannabinoid anandamide protects against excitotoxic damage in a mouse model of kainic acid-induced epilepsy.     

水牛Tle6基因表达模式分析及其多克隆抗体制备

【目的】明确水牛Tle6基因表达组织特异性及其在卵母细胞和早期胚胎中的表达模式,并通过构建原核表达载体诱导表达融合蛋白及免疫小鼠制备TLE6多克隆抗体,为进一步揭示Tle6基因在水牛生殖发育中的作用机制提供理论依据。【方法】采用RT-PCR扩增水牛Tle6基因编码区（CDS）序列,经生物信息学分析后,分别以半定量PCR和实时荧光定量PCR检测分析水牛Tle6基因表达组织特异性及其在卵母细胞和早期胚胎中的表达模式。构建重组原核表达载体,以IPTG诱导表达的融合蛋白免疫小鼠制备TLE6多克隆抗体,再利用TLE6多克隆抗体检验TLE6蛋白在水牛不同组织及卵母细胞和早期胚胎中的表达情况。【结果】水牛Tle6基因CDS序列全长1731 bp,编码576个氨基酸残基,其编码蛋白分子量为64.09 kD,理论等电点（pI）为5.69,属于亲水性蛋白。Tle6基因仅在水牛的卵母细胞中特异性表达。重组原核表达载体p ET-32a-Tle6转化BL21（DE3）感受态细胞,经IPTG诱导6 h,融合蛋白TLE6的表达量最高,且以可溶性蛋白和包涵体2种形式进行表达;以纯化的融合蛋白TLE6免疫小鼠成功制备获得TLE6多克隆抗体,其抗体效价为1∶64000,能与融合蛋白TLE6及水牛卵母细胞发生特异性反应,即具有很强的特异性。【结论】Tle6基因仅在水牛卵母细胞中特异性表达,而在其他组织中未见表达。不同于其他MEGs的表达模式,Tle6基因在水牛卵母细胞及胚胎早期发育过程中呈特异性持续表达,可能在水牛卵母细胞成熟及附植前的胚胎发育过程中发挥重要作用。     

Atrionatriuretic peptide transforms cardiac sodium channels into calcium-conducting channels

The atrionatriuretic peptide (ANP) is released from atrial cells in response to increased extracellular fluid volume and reduces sodium absorption by the kidney, thus reducing the blood volume. In this report, ANP suppressed the calcium and sodium currents in rat and guinea pig ventricular myocytes. The suppression of sodium current was caused by enhanced permeability of the sodium channel to calcium without significant changes in the kinetics or the tetrodotoxin sensitivity of the channel. Thus, ANP may regulate the sodium channel by altering its cationic selectivity site to calcium, thereby repressing the sodium current. The suppression of sodium and calcium channels and the resultant depressed excitability of the atrial cells may help to regulate ANP secretion.     

Crystal structure of the human two-pore domain potassium channel K2P1

Two-pore domain potassium (K(+)) channels (K2P channels) control the negative resting potential of eukaryotic cells and regulate cell excitability by conducting K(+) ions across the plasma membrane. Here, we present the 3.4 angstrom resolution crystal structure of a human K2P channel, K2P1 (TWIK-1). Unlike other K(+) channel structures, K2P1 is dimeric. An extracellular cap domain located above the selectivity filter forms an ion pathway in which K(+) ions flow through side portals. Openings within the transmembrane region expose the pore to the lipid bilayer and are filled with electron density attributable to alkyl chains. An interfacial helix appears structurally poised to affect gating. The structure lays a foundation to further investigate how K2P channels are regulated by diverse stimuli.     

Crystal structure of a mammalian voltage-dependent Shaker family K+ channel

Voltage-dependent potassium ion (K+) channels (Kv channels) conduct K+ ions across the cell membrane in response to changes in the membrane voltage, thereby regulating neuronal excitability by modulating the shape and frequency of action potentials. Here we report the crystal structure, at a resolution of 2.9 angstroms, of a mammalian Kv channel, Kv1.2, which is a member of the Shaker K+ channel family. This structure is in complex with an oxido-reductase beta subunit of the kind that can regulate mammalian Kv channels in their native cell environment. The activation gate of the pore is open. Large side portals communicate between the pore and the cytoplasm. Electrostatic properties of the side portals and positions of the T1 domain and beta subunit are consistent with electrophysiological studies of inactivation gating and with the possibility of K+ channel regulation by the beta subunit.     

Intracellular acidosis enhances the excitability of working muscle

Intracellular acidification of skeletal muscles is commonly thought to contribute to muscle fatigue. However, intracellular acidosis also acts to preserve muscle excitability when muscles become depolarized, which occurs with working muscles. Here, we show that this process may be mediated by decreased chloride permeability, which enables action potentials to still be propagated along the internal network of tubules in a muscle fiber (the T system) despite muscle depolarization. These results implicate chloride ion channels in muscle function and emphasize that intracellular acidosis of muscle has protective effects during muscle fatigue.     

TMEM16A, a membrane protein associated with calcium-dependent chloride channel activity

Calcium-dependent chloride channels are required for normal electrolyte and fluid secretion, olfactory perception, and neuronal and smooth muscle excitability. The molecular identity of these membrane proteins is still unclear. Treatment of bronchial epithelial cells with interleukin-4 (IL-4) causes increased calcium-dependent chloride channel activity, presumably by regulating expression of the corresponding genes. We performed a global gene expression analysis to identify membrane proteins that are regulated by IL-4. Transfection of epithelial cells with specific small interfering RNA against each of these proteins shows that TMEM16A, a member of a family of putative plasma membrane proteins with unknown function, is associated with calcium-dependent chloride current, as measured with halide-sensitive fluorescent proteins, short-circuit current, and patch-clamp techniques. Our results indicate that TMEM16A is an intrinsic constituent of the calcium-dependent chloride channel. Identification of a previously unknown family of membrane proteins associated with chloride channel function will improve our understanding of chloride transport physiopathology and allow for the development of pharmacological tools useful for basic research and drug development.     

A targeting motif involved in sodium channel clustering at the axonal initial segment

The sorting of sodium channels to axons and the formation of clusters are of primary importance for neuronal electrogenesis. Here, we showed that the cytoplasmic loop connecting domains II and III of the Nav1 subunit contains a determinant conferring compartmentalization in the axonal initial segment of rat hippocampal neurons. Expression of a soluble Nav1.2II-III linker protein led to the disorganization of endogenous sodium channels. The motif was sufficient to redirect a somatodendritic potassium channel to the axonal initial segment, a process involving association with ankyrin G. Thus, this motif may play a fundamental role in controlling electrical excitability during development and plasticity.     

Astrocytes potentiate transmitter release at single hippocampal synapses

Astrocytes play active roles in brain physiology. They respond to neurotransmitters and modulate neuronal excitability and synaptic function. However, the influence of astrocytes on synaptic transmission and plasticity at the single synapse level is unknown. Ca(2+) elevation in astrocytes transiently increased the probability of transmitter release at hippocampal area CA3-CA1 synapses, without affecting the amplitude of synaptic events. This form of short-term plasticity was due to the release of glutamate from astrocytes, a process that depended on Ca(2+) and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein and that activated metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). The transient potentiation of transmitter release became persistent when the astrocytic signal was temporally coincident with postsynaptic depolarization. This persistent plasticity was mGluR-mediated but N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-independent. These results indicate that astrocytes are actively involved in the transfer and storage of synaptic information.     

Graded regulation of the Kv2.1 potassium channel by variable phosphorylation

Dynamic modulation of ion channels by phosphorylation underlies neuronal plasticity. The Kv2.1 potassium channel is highly phosphorylated in resting mammalian neurons. Activity-dependent Kv2.1 dephosphorylation by calcineurin induces graded hyperpolarizing shifts in voltage-dependent activation, causing suppression of neuronal excitability. Mass spectrometry-SILAC (stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture) identified 16 Kv2.1 phosphorylation sites, of which 7 were dephosphorylated by calcineurin. Mutation of individual calcineurin-regulated sites to alanine produced incremental shifts mimicking dephosphorylation, whereas mutation to aspartate yielded equivalent resistance to calcineurin. Mutations at multiple sites were additive, showing that variable phosphorylation of Kv2.1 at a large number of sites allows graded activity-dependent regulation of channel gating and neuronal firing properties.     

癫痫小鼠颅脑损伤后海马与顶叶皮质中C-FOS蛋白的表达

【目的】探讨具有癫痫基础病变小鼠在遭受颅脑损伤时,海马和顶叶皮质中CFOS表达与损伤的相关性及其在损伤中的意义,为癫痫后颅脑损伤复合病变研究提供理论依据。【方法】用腹腔注射匹罗卡品法构建小鼠（2周龄）癫痫模型,饲养4周后（6周龄）采用自由落体法构建闭合性颅脑损伤小鼠模型和癫痫+闭合性颅脑损伤小鼠模型,同时以正常小鼠为对照,于造模后0.5,3 h及1,3,7 d取小鼠大脑,制备切片,采用尼氏染色、免疫组织化学染色方法,从形态学以及蛋白质水平上研究各组小鼠大脑海马和顶叶皮质中C-FOS的表达情况。【结果】癫痫模型、闭合性颅脑损伤模型及癫痫+闭合性颅脑损伤小鼠模型均构建成功。免疫组织化学染色结果显示,癫痫合并闭合性颅脑损伤小鼠顶叶皮质、海马均有着色深浅不同、数目不等的C-FOS阳性细胞。与对照组相比,单纯癫痫组、单纯闭合性颅脑损伤组、癫痫+闭合性颅脑损伤组C-FOS灰度值均显著（P<0.05）或极显著降低(P<0.01);癫痫+闭合性颅脑损伤组小鼠海马和顶叶皮质C-FOS阳性细胞数均显著（P<0.05）或极显著（P<0.01）高于单纯癫痫组与单纯闭合性颅脑损伤组。【结论】癫痫小鼠颅脑损伤后,海马和顶叶皮质持续高表达C-FOS,从而促进神经细胞凋亡,加重颅脑损伤后的病理变化。     

A Drosophila mechanosensory transduction channel

Mechanosensory transduction underlies a wide range of senses, including proprioception, touch, balance, and hearing. The pivotal element of these senses is a mechanically gated ion channel that transduces sound, pressure, or movement into changes in excitability of specialized sensory cells. Despite the prevalence of mechanosensory systems, little is known about the molecular nature of the transduction channels. To identify such a channel, we analyzed Drosophila melanogaster mechanoreceptive mutants for defects in mechanosensory physiology. Loss-of-function mutations in the no mechanoreceptor potential C (nompC) gene virtually abolished mechanosensory signaling. nompC encodes a new ion channel that is essential for mechanosensory transduction. As expected for a transduction channel, D. melanogaster NOMPC and a Caenorhabditis elegans homolog were selectively expressed in mechanosensory organs.     

Compartmentalized and binary behavior of terminal dendrites in hippocampal pyramidal neurons

The dendritic arbor of pyramidal neurons is not a monolithic structure. We show here that the excitability of terminal apical dendrites differs from that of the apical trunk. In response to fluorescence-guided focal photolysis of caged glutamate, individual terminal apical dendrites generated cadmium-sensitive all-or-none responses that were subthreshold for somatic action potentials. Calcium transients produced by all-or-none responses were not restricted to the sites of photolysis, but occurred throughout individual distal dendritic compartments, indicating that electrogenesis is mediated primarily by voltage-gated calcium channels. Compartmentalized and binary behavior of parallel-connected terminal dendrites can greatly expand the computational power of a single neuron.     

Vascular Smooth Muscle: Dual Effect of Calcium

The first part of the contractile response of rabbit aorta to epinephrine is depressed by elevation of calcium concentration; the second is potentiated. These observations suggest that the rate-limiting factor for the former is membrane excitability (depressed by increased calcium), while that for the latter is the role that calcium plays in coupling membrane excitation with the development of tension by the contractile protein (a function that is augmented by increased calcium).