Introduction: Environmental conflict in the Asia‐Pacific

Abstract: The literature on environmental conflict has expanded greatly over the past 10 years, yet most of the cases and theory have been from a Western, Northern, and developed world context. This volume concentrates on cases of current conflict and its management from Asian and Pacific nations. This paper presents a brief literature review of the nature of environmental conflict and highlights some of the key authors who have featured. Their conclusions are summarised into four key suppositions; a) Environmental conflict is a result of scarcity and represents social struggles against uneven usage and allocation of resources; b) Environmental conflict reflects poor performance by governments in developing complex public policy; c) Environmental conflict involves the issues of power and rights; d) Environmental conflict is an inevitable consequence of development and can be constructive.     

Analyzing the spatial allocation of Japan’s aid to China: A perspective from the relations between aid allocation stakeholders

While the spatial distribution of foreign aid has aroused a widespread academic interest, the existing research is limited mainly to the transnational level and lacks an analysis of aid allocation within a single recipient country. Moreover, more attention is paid to the factors influencing the aid allocation than to the interactions among different aid allocation stakeholders. To fill the research blank, this paper proposes a “three-party relationship model” to analyze the spatial allocation of aid within a recipient county, and uses the case of Japan's aid to China to validate the model. We find most of the aid has been allocated to the economic infrastructure, over time, and the key aid sector has shifted from economic infrastructure to social infrastructure and general environmental protection; The allocation characteristics of total aid and key aid sectors are various; The spatial allocation pattern of aid reflects an interaction between the donor (Japan) and the recipient country (China). The degree of importance of each aid allocation stakeholder is different at different stages of the total life cycle of aid, and the aid allocation stakeholder relationship in the three-party relationship model may be constantly reshaped during the allocation processes of aid in space.     

乡村旅游的乡村性研究

乡村区别于城市的乡村性是乡村旅游的核心和独特卖点,综合国内外学者的研究,指出乡村性的构成元素有地域条件、乡村意象、旅游产业本地化、社区参与和可持续发展5个方面。在乡村旅游发展过程中,各利益主体（农民、旅游者、乡村旅游企业、政府）会不同程度地破坏乡村性,每一个利益主体的意识局限于本部门范围内,主要关心的是自己本部门的利益,为保持乡村性,利益主体的权益在乡村旅游的开发过程中需要协调与合作。     

Social movements,environment, and technology in Indonesia’s pulp and paper industry

This paper examines community, environmental, and human rights activists’ influence on adoption of environmentally-friendly technologies in Indonesia’s pulp and paper industry. The story begins with conflict over the development of an export pulp mill in North Sumatra in the 1980s and continues with the adoption of environmental technologies in Indonesia’s pulp and paper industry in the 1990s. Organising around a number of specific events associated with pulp industry development, activists drew attention to the industry which led to a strengthening of government environmental regulation and enforcement, and hastened the adoption of cleaner production technologies.     

Climate change education in the South Pacific: Resilience for whom?

Climate change education (CCE) can be an important tool to increase local community resilience. In 2017, the Pacific Community ratified the Framework for Resilient Development in the Pacific (FRDP) aiming to equip local communities with skills needed to become more climate change resilient. In 2018, Fiji implemented the Climate Change Resilience Programme (CCRP) at the University of the South Pacific (USP), the first of its kind in the South Pacific. This paper evaluates (i) the orientation and aim of the programme and (ii) how different stakeholders influenced the curriculum development process. Tribe's concept of curriculum space is used to highlight the overall aim of the CCRP. Freeman's stakeholder theory allows to identify key stakeholders and their influence on the curriculum. Results indicate that the programme seems to foster climate resilience in the workplace rather than the local community. Unfortunately, current and future community leaders, the notional targets of this course, were almost completely unrepresented in the process to accredit the course, with the body responsible for accreditation being dominated by industry representatives. This study helps to inform the current review of the Regional Certificate Programme to realign it with its initially envisioned community focus.     

Information dissemination and communication in stakeholder participation: the Bohol-Cebu water supply project

Development theories in the 1990s embrace a much more people-centred perspective than in previous decades. At the same time, foreign direct investment is increasingly being touted as a new form of development assistance, and transnational corporations as new aid agents. However, the ideology of the free market is incongruous with the people-centredness of contemporary development theory. The result is a polarisation between participatory development and market driven paradigms. This study introduced the models of instrumental and transformative participation and the way they influence information flow and communication. These models are used to examine a project proponent’s and stakeholder’s actions in a privatised development setting, using a Philippine case study. The case study is the Bohol-Cebu water supply project, a project of water capture, treatment, and transmission, linking the islands of Bohol and Cebu. Communication and information dissemination between the project proponent and stakeholders is viewed under the requirements of Philippine legislation for participation in development. The findings from this research suggest that the proponent tended to exclude or only partially include affected stakeholders in the development process. Sources of information were often nongovernmental organisations, the Church, and, in many instances, the media. The proponent’s method of disseminating information was primarily to target the municipal or provincial government level, thus disenfranchising the ‘grass roots’     

Inequality and conflict in Fiji: From purgatory to hell?

Abstract: This article examines socio‐economic inequality in Fiji and finds that, contrary to oft‐repeated claims, inequality between Fiji"s major ethnic groups (inter‐ethnic inequality) is less significant than inequality within each ethnic group (intra‐ethnic inequality). In spite of this reality, inter‐group inequality and affirmative action policies have remained central features of state policy in Fiji. This article suggests that Fiji's experience has three implications for the growing literature on the relationship between inequality and conflict. First, examining average inequality between groups can be misleading. Secondly, a key to understanding the relationship between ethnic and economic cleavages in post‐colonial plural societies, such as Fiji, is in the interaction between intra‐group and inter‐group inequality. Thirdly, there does not seem to be a straightforward relationship between actual levels of inequality, perceptions of inequality, and the prominence given to inequality in ethno‐nationalist discourse. In Fiji's case, the strategic deployment of inter‐group inequality has served, and continues to serve, the material and discursive interests of some political elites. As a result, the intersection between ethnicity, inequality and political rivalry in contemporary Fiji has been the source of much conflict and, importantly, may offer a nexus on which attempts at conflict resolution should focus.     

A Governance Framework of Chinese Heritage Resources Based on Social Network

Based on the literature review of Chinese heritage resources management,a governance framework was put forward from the perspective of social network in order to deal with the conflict between heritage tourism development and heritage resources protection.First,all stakeholders including administrate departments,related enterprises,local communities and tourists should become subjects of heritage resources governance.Second,governance structure was defined which would describe the roles that all stakeholders played in the governance of heritage resources.Third,several governance mechanism including motivation and restraint mechanism,interaction and coordination mechanism,sharing and integration mechanism should be established.The network governance would balance benefi ts of all the stakeholders,avoid the phenomena such as free ride and external diseconomy and ensure the sustainable development of heritage sites.     

Political conflict in postcolonial Oceania

Abstract: This article provides an overview of growing conflict in Oceania and considers some of the broad attempts to explain it. It critically outlines the nature of the post‐colonial transformation of the region and considers the influence of this on patterns of instability. It concludes that the region exhibits an unprecedented vulnerability in politico‐economic, social and environmental terms and that useful interpretations of this must involve attention to local contingency as well as broad structural/historical change. This context is used to introduce the contributions to this special edition on postcolonial transformations and political conflict in Oceania.     

农村居民点整理模式与利益分配研究进展

通过对农村居民点整理的研究文献的梳理分析,发现该领域研究成果较多。国外农村居民点整理模式体现出整体主体多元化、重视利益分配的合理性、注重生态景观美化等理念和制度特点,这也为其具体操作中的利益分配奠定了基础。国内对此问题的研究主要集中在农村居民点整理概念与内涵、模式分类、驱动力、效益评价等问题上。对各类整理模式的整体性特点,尤其是不足之处的研究有所涉及,但较薄弱。针对农村居民点整理中各利益主体的利益分配问题,鲜有文献将其作为研究对象,有少数学者在研究相关问题时,体现出要关注此问题的思想萌芽。探讨合理的农村居民点整理模式,切实保障各整理主体利益,将是后续研究的重要内容。     

The challenge of sustainable tourism development in the Maldives: Understanding the social and political dimensions of sustainability

Issues of power and politics are central to the development of the tourism sector and its prospects for contributing to sustainable development. This is demonstrated through a case study of the evolution of tourism in the Maldives, a luxury tourism destination where the government has followed a consistent policy of ‘quality tourism’ that has often been cited as a prime example of sustainable tourism. However, recently concerns have been raised about environmental degradation, human rights abuses, connections between the political and economic elite, and huge economic disparities associated with tourism here. Research on sustainable tourism needs to recognise the state's pivotal role in directing tourism development and consider how states balance the competing interests of other powerful tourism stakeholders.     

“中庸思想”下合作社制度蕴含的矛盾及破解

西方的中庸理论和中国传统的“中庸之道”为合作经济理论奠定了道德伦理基础。论述了西方以亚里士多德为代表的中庸理论及中国古代的“中庸思想”;发现合作社的建立道路、产权制度、治理结构、分配方式都蕴含着中庸思想。中庸思想在为合作经济理论奠定道德伦理基础的同时,也使合作社制度中存在各种矛盾：“门户开放”的矛盾、产权制度的矛盾、治理结构的矛盾、分配制度的矛盾等;为解决这些矛盾,提出在入社门槛、产权制度、治理结构、分配制度等方面对合作社制度进行创新。     

浅谈烤烟基本烟田废弃物的综合利用

基本烟田废弃物的利用不仅关系到烟农的经济利益,也关系到烟草行业持续发展和环境污染问题的解决。笔者立足于国家烟草局优化等级结构的政策,介绍了前人综合利用烟草方面废弃物的研究,为烟草田间产生的废弃物合理利用提供理论依据和方法借鉴,以期达到变废为宝和清洁烟草生产的目的。     

Integrated sustainability assessment of cropping systems with agro-ecological and economic indicators in northern Italy

The sustainability of agricultural systems is frequently evaluated with indicators, which are synthetic variables describing complex systems. Each indicator deals with one aspect of sustainability (e.g. nutrients, pesticides, energy), and therefore the result of a complete assessment usually includes several indicator values. These values are frequently presented separately, while an integrated evaluation could benefit from the calculation of a single sustainability index. The aim of this work was to integrate 15 economic and environmental indicator values into a global sustainability index (S_g) ranging from 0 to 1.To calculate the indicators, we used a large data set of cropping systems management for 131 fields cultivated with arable crops in northern Italy, obtained through periodic interviews with farmers over a 2-year period. The fields were chosen to represent the main cropping systems in the area (cereals and forages, on animal and cereal farms). The 15 indicators describe a large variety of sustainability aspects, i.e. the economic performance and the management of energy, nutrients, soil, and pesticides.The indicator values were first converted into a sustainability score (S_i; 0–1) applying continuous non-linear sustainability functions that use thresholds defining what is sustainable, unsustainable, or intermediate. We obtained 15 values of S_i per each field, which we aggregated into S_g using indicator-specific weights provided by different stakeholders. This procedure permits not only the single indicators evaluation, but also to combine indicators for an assessment of cropping systems at field level.Permanent meadows, due to good management of soil, pesticides and nutrients, obtained the highest S_g, even when different weights were used. Continuous rice obtained the lowest S_g (due to unsatisfactory soil management, low energy production, and high pest and weed pressure, which involved a large use of pesticides), while maize was intermediate, with good economic and energetic performance.The methodology allows a transparent, repeatable, sound, and quantitative evaluation of sustainability of agricultural systems. It can be easily expanded by adding other indicators, and can be tailored by changing the thresholds used to calculate S_i and the weights assigned by stakeholder groups.     

游客对农业文化遗产地旅游主客冲突感知研究

为了解决农业文化遗产地旅游主客冲突问题,采用问卷调查法,以农业文化遗产地紫鹊界梯田的游客为调查对象,以旅游主客冲突感知为调查内容,通过问卷调查分析把旅游主客冲突因子归为参与性行为冲突因子、经济冲突因子、服务冲突因子、环境冲突因子、行为冲突因子、社会冲突因子、文化冲突因子,并得出旅游主客交往的意愿都很强、旅游主客冲突普遍存在以及旅游主客冲突管理具有必要性等结论。     

The Role of Government in Housebreaking

There is a conflict of the interests among the housebreaking householder, the developer and the government. In this paper, the different interests among the three sides are analyzed based on the city housebreaking management ordinance. It is suggested that taking intervention measures by the government to restrict the behavior of the developer and guarantee the interests of the weak parties to find a way out from the conflict.     

Implementation analysis of transfer of development rights for conserving privately owned built heritage in Hong Kong: A transactions costs perspective

Transfer of development rights (TDR) programs are introduced as an alternative institutional innovation to the traditional regulatory instruments for land development. They meet the demand for development and conservation while balancing the conflicts between public and private interests with minimal use of public funds. Most TDR literature is about nature conservation and there is little focus on the complicated process and diverse stakeholders’ interests of urban land use in dealing with built heritage conservation. Previous studies show that the success of TDR programs depends on various elements, especially policy design and implementation approaches. The design and implementation of TDR programs involves transaction costs that can reduce the efficiency and effectiveness of these programs. This paper aims at developing a framework for analyzing TDR programs. This proposed framework not only takes transactions costs into account, but also provides a basis for decision makers to decipher the process of informal TDR. Using Hong Kong as a case study, three TDR implementation modes are selected to examine how different informal institutional arrangements have resulted in specific transaction costs in practice and hindered TDR projects. Our findings, which are informed by transactions costs economics, provide practical insights in order to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of TDR programs, particularly in informal contexts.     

Representation Forms of Randomicity of Conflict Events in Construction Project and Their Affection

The conflict events that occurred in construction engineering project(CEP) often bring about a lot of adverse affection on project implementation,and show a random character.In order to find out the representing rule of conflict events in CEP,on the basis of investigation,in this paper the representing degree of conflict events in every stage is described with a new concept,i.e.the representing intensity,by combining the quantitative analysis with the qualitative analysis.Then,according to AHP,every stage's judgment matrixes of conflict events are set up,their affection on the whole construction projects from the cumulative results of conflict events in each stage have been analyzed with Latent roots of these matrixes,and the outcome is satisfactory according to the result of consistency test.At last,the distribution of conflict events during the life cycle of CEP has also been described by statistics data of the investigation.The research has obvious theoretic and practical value for forecasting conflict events,mastering the whole project situation,avoiding and reducing conflict events,and improving project management level.     

An appraisal of environmental conflict management provisions in New Zealand's Resource Management Act 1991

Abstract: Since the 1970s a body of literature has developed internationally which can be termed loosely as ‘environmental conflict management’ (ECM) theory and practice. When New Zealand's disparate environmental management framework was reformed during the 1980s a ‘superstatute’ known as the Resource Management Act (RMA), passed in 1991, was the major outcome. During the RMA policy formulation process in the late 1980s, known as Resource Management Law Reform (RMLR), calls were made for better integration of mediation and other alternative dispute resolution (ADR) approaches into the statutory framework. The final wording of the RMA includes specific clauses on mediation and the option of ‘pre‐hearing meetings’, suggesting that ECM and environmental dispute resolution (EDR) approaches have become part of the new decision‐making framework in New Zealand. Given such provisions, and the fact that it is now more than ten years since the RMA was passed, an appraisal of ECM/EDR progress to date within this statute seems justified. It is argued that to date very little emphasis has been placed upon early EDR intervention. This lack of emphasis, it is concluded, is due primarily to low levels of awareness and inadequate training and despite limitations on its usefulness in certain resource conflict settings we suggest that there is scope for greater promotion and implementation of EDR approaches in the local government context.     

Negotiating local livelihoods: Scales of conflict in the Se San River Basin

Abstract: The Se San is an important tributary river basin of the Mekong. In 1993, Vietnam began building the Yali Falls Dam 80 kilometres upstream of the point at which this westward flowing river enters Cambodia. Ninety indigenous communities along the Se San River in two provinces of north‐eastern Cambodia have been impacted severely by flooding, and a dramatically altered hydrological regime that affects fisheries and all other aspects of livelihood, such as river bank agriculture. Since 2000, when the first turbines were commissioned, the affected communities have been increasingly vocal regarding the impacts of Yali and the plans for several more dams on upper reaches of the river. A complex set of actors including non‐governmental organisations, village, district and provincial authorities, national committees in Cambodia and Vietnam, the Mekong River Commission and a range of international players have become involved in a two‐track process, which has nevertheless allowed little space for negotiation over the Se San River on the part of those most directly affected. This case has fundamental implications for governance and conflict management in the Mekong and more widely. The Australian Mekong Resource Centre has been working with local actors to document the Se San case as part of an international project on River Basin Management: a negotiated approach, in support of six cases that involve up‐scaling of grassroots river basin initiatives in Africa, Latin America and Asia. In this article, we illustrate the significance of and problematise negotiation as a socially and politically embedded conflict management principle, with reference to the Se San case.