Impact of land-use type and bark- and leaf-harvesting on population structure and fruit production of the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) in a semi-arid savanna,West Africa

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) strongly contribute to livelihood security in the semi-arid tropics. There is increasing concern about the population status of NTFP-providing trees and therefore a need for their sustainable use. Thus, this study examines the impact of land-use type on the multipurpose baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) in Burkina Faso, combined with rates and patterns of bark- and leaf-harvesting, and their impact on fruit production. We compared stands in a protected area (W National Park of Burkina Faso) with those of surrounding communal area (fallows, croplands and villages) to obtain an indication on the status of the baobab population, to assess its harvesting tolerance and to estimate to what extent their actual use is sustainable. Our results reveal that land-use type has an impact on the population structure of the baobab. The size class distribution curve of park stands was inverse J-shape which indicates good rejuvenation, while the curve of fallows, croplands and villages stands was bell-shaped, indicating a lack of recruitment. However, a high number of seedlings were recorded in villages. Nearly all baobabs were pruned and debarked in villages, croplands and fallows while half of the individuals were harvested in the park. Most of the trees were pruned and debarked moderately. Debarking and pruning were slightly size specific. Pruning in interaction with tree-size had a significant impact on fruit production. In contrast, debarking had no effect on fruit production. We conclude that despite the land-use impact and the intense harvesting, baobabs are still well preserved in the communal area due to their longevity, extremely low adult mortality rates and traditional management practices. However, land-use intensifications may lead to increasing pressure on baobab populations in the future. Therefore, adapted management strategies are needed to guarantee the persistence of this important species and to avoid a shortage of baobab products.     

Participation to forest conservation in National Kabore Tambi Park in Southern Burkina Faso

The main objective with this study is to investigate how different household characteristics, households' perceptions about the security of land use rights, and the households' proximity to forests affect the individual household's willingness to engage in activities that are meant to promote sustainable forest management in Burkina Faso. To achieve this objective we use a multinomial choice model of engagement (or non-engagement) in forest management activities based on household data from 4 villages surrounding the National Kabore Tambi Park in Burkina Faso. The results show that the participation by household members in forest conservation activities is mainly determined by the three variables that are related to policy: membership in community based forest management associations, security of land use rights, and training. The current training programs focus only on forest conservation practices. To be more efficient it should focus on increasing people's knowledge about the benefits due to conservation and the threats resulting from the lack of forest management. Furthermore the results indicate that improving land use right security would increase farmer's willingness to participate in forest management activities such as community work and forest surveillance. Thus particular attention should be paid to the prevailing system of land rights and its incentives, or disincentives, for promoting sustainable management of the forest resource.     

Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit production in communal and conservation land-use types in Southern Africa

Baobab fruit are harvested and used throughout Africa as an important source of food and are sold to generate income. Commercial use is increasing rapidly as derivatives of the fruit such as baobab seed oil and fruit pulp are being exported to Europe and North America. The cash derived from the sale of fruit support thousands of rural people. This study examines baobab fruit yields in an area being harvested for commercial use. It represents baobab populations and harvesting scenarios typically found in Southern Africa and is the first study in Africa to combine demographic and production data in determining baobab fruit yields.Fruit production was examined across five land-use types (nature reserves, rocky outcrops, plains, fields and villages) and over three consecutive years. Factors assessed included differences in life-stage, tree size, land-use type, inter-annual variation and quantifiable fruit predation.Results showed that adult trees produced 8 times more fruit than sub-adult trees. Fruit production fluctuated between size-classes and exhibited weak linear and logarithmic trends between fruit production and dbh and crown volume, respectively. There was high variation between trees with 41% of adult trees consistently producing <5 fruit per year, which we classed as ‘poor-producers’. Different land uses showed no significant differences in fruit production per tree, but where baboons were present, in nature reserves and rocky outcrops, predation of immature fruit resulted in up to 85% fruit loss. Villages and fields had the highest tree density and yielded the most fruit/ha. Inter-annual variation was significant with a two and a half fold difference between the highest and lowest year.The results of this study are important for economic planning and management and are key to determining sustainable harvesting levels of baobab fruit in Southern Africa.     

Determinants of access to forest products in southern Burkina Faso

There is an increasing understanding that forests and the forestry sector are key elements in poverty reduction strategies in Africa. However, issues of equity between various forest users are becoming a major challenge to environmental development, forest management and poverty reduction. This paper presents an analysis of household representatives' socio-economic determinants and other constraints on accessing forest products, based on data collected through a questionnaire survey of 1865 respondents in seven districts of the Sissili province, southern Burkina Faso. Three logistic regression models were developed to examine determinants of access to the forest for collecting fuelwood, grazing livestock and collecting non-timber forest products (NTFPs). The results showed that access to forest products is associated with individual characteristics. Age, ethnicity, occupation and sources of income were significant determinants of access to all types of forest products. Access to the forest for grazing livestock was further influenced by gender and household size, while access to NTFPs was influenced by gender, household size and education level of the respondents. The formal forest law that precludes grazing in the forest, and customary rules and regulations pertaining to land tenure, were reported to be serious constraints to forest access for women and migrant people. Understanding the factors influencing access to products from commonly-owned forest resources could form the basis for developing, modifying and targeting policy instruments that promote equitable access. Policies should particularly encourage the direct involvement of vulnerable and marginalized groups (women and migrants) in forest management activities.     

Application of traditional knowledge in forest management: Ethnobotanical indicators of sustainable forest use

Forest management has been usefully defined in terms of production, utilization and distribution of products, and the institutional or organizational arrangements by which they are carried out. Both technical and social aspects of forest management are treated as parts of a single system. Traditional knowledge of the use and management of forests still has a vital role to play in forest management today. This is because traditional practices are believed to be often favourable towards conservation and sustainable use. It is therefore valuable to establish a framework to evaluate the contribution of traditional knowledge to forest management today. Accordingly, a framework, based on ethnobotanical information, is proposed in this paper, with quantitative and qualitative indicators suggested for different variables relating to traditional knowledge. The discussion is based on ethnobotanical case studies from Yunnan and other provinces of China in which we have been working.     

Fruits of our labour: contribution of commercial baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit harvesting to the livelihoods of marginalized people in northern Venda, South Africa

Baobabs (Adansonia digitata) provide products, mainly bark, leaves and fruit, which are used for subsistence purposes and traded to generate cash. Recently, demands for baobab fruit derivatives on the global organic market, namely pulp and seed oil, have increased rapidly, leading to concerns that this may have negative impacts on subsistence users, particularly in areas where there is an existing high dependence on these products, such as West Africa. In contrast, in southern Africa baobab fruit are probably ‘underutilized’ and commercialization would help reduce poverty. This study evaluated the direct-use (subsistence) and income (cash) value of baobab fruit on the livelihoods of baobab fruit harvesters in South Africa. Harvesters were mostly women (98 %), many of whom were unemployed (98 %) and uneducated (70 %). The majority (68 %) received social grants and were involved in informal occupations (55 %), which contributed 35 and 18 % to total annual income respectively. The trade and direct-use value of non-timber forest products contributed 14 and 33 % to annual income, of which, baobab fruit made up 38 and 4 % respectively. Baobab fruit was the only non-timber forest product that had a higher income value (4×) than direct-use value. Cash earned was used to buy food (73 %) and invest in small businesses, suggesting a move from subsistence to cash economy. It is suggested that commercialization of baobab fruit will have far-reaching benefits; and that secured access to trees and investment in local beneficiation will further increase the value of the resource for many marginalized people in southern Africa.     

A national level forest resource assessment for Burkina Faso - A field based forest inventory in a semiarid environment combining small sample size with large observation plots

Even though considerable parts of the global tropical forests are located in Africa, reliable data on African forest resources is limited. While this is widely recognized for tropical moist forests, it also holds for tropical dry forests. To partially fill the gap a forest inventory was carried out in Burkina Faso, West Africa. In this paper we present a methodological approach and sample based estimates of the tree and forest resources including estimates of (1) land cover classes, (2) species composition, and (3) above ground tree carbon stocks. Following the land classification of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the forest cover of Burkina Faso was estimated as 42.6% (116,847 km²). For the classes “other wooded land”, “other land” and “other land with tree cover” the estimates were 1.6%, 53.6%, and 9.1%, respectively. We found notable differences to the estimates published by FAO, in particular when considering the classes “forest” and “other wooded land” separately, but lesser so when the two classes are combined. That points to a major issue in applying these class definitions in semiarid environments. Given the relatively small sample size (n = 46 field observed plots), relative standard errors (SE%) of area estimates are high (around 9% for the larger area classes). Aboveground tree carbon stocks were estimated to be 6.640, 5.580 and 7.222 Mg ha⁻¹ for “forest”, “other wooded land” and “other land with tree cover”, respectively (SE% around 18% for all three estimates). Availability of biomass models is very limited for all classes, in particular when it comes to shrubs. Furthermore, it was estimated that the most abundant tree species in Burkina Faso is Vittelaria paradoxa, the “shea butter tree” which is a multi-use tree species of high relevance for rural livelihoods.To our knowledge this study is the first field-based forest inventory on national level in Burkina Faso where the estimation of errors was possible on statistical grounds, and done. The results of this study revealed major issues that should be taken into account when doing similar studies, including carbon monitoring and accounting: increasing the sample size will lead to smaller standard errors (at a higher costs, of course), but will not solve the crucial points (1) of non-availability of suitable biomass models, in particular for shrub lands and (2) of implementation issues regarding the definition of land cover types.     

Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) for livelihoods and biodiversity conservation in the orangutan habitat of Batang Toru, North Sumatra, Indonesia: mixed prospects for domestication

Domestication of desirable forest resources in agroforestry is expected to contribute to community based forest conservation efforts, but there may be an optimum level of domestication in this respect. Aren or sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.) is a multipurpose tree that provides livelihoods for local people and food for other biota in the landscape. However, its domestication is still limited in many places, such as in Batang Toru Forest Block, an area of high conservation value, including habitat for the Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii). Options for aren management were prioritized as part of a landscape-scale conservation study by comparing domestication levels in the area. Data on economic indicators and ecological knowledge were gathered through interviews with key farmers, focus groups and transect walks. Four representative villages were selected for the study, that is, (i) two villages with no domestication of aren; and (ii) two villages with aren cultivation in rubber-based land-use systems. Costbenefit analyses suggested that in a rich biodiversity area, such as Batang Toru, although aren was one of the sources of local livelihoods, additional investment for domestication beyond cultivation was not an option considered by farmers. Farmers still perceived wildlife as an efficient mode of aren regeneration, supported by the coexistence of people and other biota in the area. It appears the value of aren for local people’s livelihoods and conservation can be enhanced by increasing its stocking density. There is also scope for improving market access and share of end-user value received by farmers.     

Woody species composition,diversity and structure of riparian forests of four watercourses types in Burkina Faso

Riparian forests are classified as endangered ecosystems in general,particularly in sahelian countries like Burkina Faso because of human-induced alterations and civil engineering works.The modification of this important habitat is continuing,with little attention being paid to the ecological or human consequences of these changes.The objective of this study is to describe the variation of woody species diversity and dynamic in riparian forests on different type of watercourse banks along phytogeographical gradient in Burkina Faso.All woody species were systematically measured in 90 sample plots with sides of 50 m × 20 m.Density,dominance,frequency and species and family importance values were computed to characterize the species composition.Different diver-sity indices were calculated to examine the heterogeneity of riparian forests.A total of 196 species representing 139 genera and 51 families were recorded in the overall riparian forests.The species richness of individuals with dbh ≥ 5cm increased significantly from the North to the South along the phytogeographical gradient and varied significantly between the different types of riparian forests.Similarity in tree species composition between riparian forests was low,which indicates high beta diversity and reflects differences in habitat conditions and topography.The structural characteristics varied significantly along the phyto-geographical gradient and between the different types of riparian forests.The diameter class distribution of trees in all riparian forests showed a reverse "J" shaped curve except riparian forest of stream indicating vegetation dominated by juvenile individuals.Considering the ecological importance of riparian forest,there is a need to delineate and classify them along watercourses throughout the country.     

Traditional agroforestry systems of multi-crop “milpa” and “chichipera” cactus forest in the arid Tehuacán Valley,Mexico: their management and role in people’s subsistence

Agroforestry systems (AFS) derived from the cactus forest “chichipera” and cultivated with “milpa”, the traditional multi-crop system of maize-beans-squash were studied in the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico. Plant management types practiced by people, role of agricultural and forest resources in households’ subsistence, and consequences of changes in AFS were investigated through ethnobotanical, ecological, and economic approaches. People maintain in this AFS 122 plant species that provide useful products for 14 different purposes. Nearly 90% of useful plants are native to the region, representing 54% of all plant species recorded in the chichipera forest. Management strategies were identified occurring on 63 species at landscape, parcel, and individual plant levels. About 67% of managed plant species are left standing during clearance of vegetation; 35% are transplanted to the parcels’ surrounding area, 32% receive particular protection, and 10 species from other areas are cultivated inside the fields. During years of higher rainfall (~745 mm) AFS supply nearly 75% of the maize grain and 50% of the maize straw used as fodder by households. AFS with intermediate vegetation cover have higher economic value than monocultures and forest. However, plots with low forest cover and monocultures are progressively more common as consequence of socio-cultural processes. Local traditional ecological knowledge and management techniques are crucial for managing resilience of these AFS.     

Use of forest resources,traditional forest-related knowledge and livelihood of forest dependent communities: Cases in South Korea

The patterns of forest resource use in South Korea have been overviewed along with the forest resource availability to the forest users and in relation to the socio-economic conditions of local people. In South Korea, forest income arises more from non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and forest ecosystems services than from timber. The relationship between availability of forest resources and income of residents in mountainous villages was addressed with statistical analysis of results of household surveys conducted in Gangwon-do Province. The result indicates that the mere existence of forest resources and related cultural heritages is not enough for local communities to obtain income from forest land. Proper arrangements for local communities in accessing the forest resources and knowledge of making use of the resources is required to make the relationship constructive for people's livelihood. Joint management agreement between forest communities and the forest owner serves both parties for sustainable forest management in Korea as seen in the case of maple sap collection within Seoul National University Forests. The traditional knowledge held by local residents is of value for income generation for forest dependent communities and is considered as an integral part of sustainable forest management as seen in the case of native honey bee keeping near protected forest areas managed by the national forest authority. However, traditional cultural values may be positive or negative for ecologically sound forest management as seen in the pest management policy of the Korean government formulated based on cultural value rather than considerations of ecosystem health.     

Use and knowledge of forest plants among the Ribeirinhos, a traditional Amazonian population

This study assessed the ethnobotanical use and knowledge of forest plant diversity among the Ribeirinhos, a traditional population of the Brazilian Amazon living in a protected area (Tapajós National Forest, West of Pará), and compared the importance of forest plants used in their daily activities with the use of cultivated plants (agrobiodiversity) from their home gardens and swidden-fallows. We used two complementary quantitative ethnobotanical methods, based on (i) daily scan observations in 14 families’ homes, and (ii) ethnobotanical inventories of trees, palms and lianas of DBH ≥ 5 cm in 23 plots each of 0.1-ha, set up in three types of forests. Analyses of the ethnobotanical surveys in the plots showed that most forest species (120 out of the 140 inventoried, i.e. 86 %) were acknowledged to be useful by the informants (use value >0) and accounted for 91.2 % of the inventoried individuals measuring DBH ≥ 5 cm. However, daily observations of plant gathering in homes showed that only a few forest species considered ‘useful’ were used daily, whilst species cultivated in gardens and swidden-fallows represented the majority of species used. The Ribeirinhos were also found to know as much about using forest plant diversity, if not more, than other traditional groups from Amazonia or from other tropical regions of South America, including the Amerindians. The article concludes with some recommendations for adapting development practices to local uses of plant diversity in this protected area.     

Participatory forest management in Burkina Faso：Members’ perception of performance

This study examines variations in the performance of partic-ipatory forest management programs among four forest management groups （FMGs） in southern Burkina Faso, and assesses the factors that influence their members’ perceptions of performance through a house-hold survey of 216 members. Variations in performance scores among the FMGs were analyzed through multivariate analysis of variance while multinomial regression analysis was used to identify factors that influ-ence their perception of the performance. The results reveal significant differences in performance scores among FMGs. Members of some FMGs perceived that the participatory forest management program ena-bled them to get benefits from the sale of fuelwood while performance scores in the forest conservation and decision-making processes is gener-ally poor. The score for economic performance of FMGs in turn was related to better access to roads and markets. Group size tended to en-hance economic performance via its strong influence on annual fuelwood harvest, while the resource base appeared to be inconsequential. Mem-bers of the forest management groups perceived that large group size and group heterogeneity, particularly in terms of ethnicity, as well as knowledge and awareness of problems related to the forest environment have no influence on the performance of their respective groups. For rural communities to have a favorable disposition toward sustainable forest management, differences in member understanding of collective actions and their impact before and during the implementation of partic-ipatory forest management programs should be considered.     

Forest patches in Imperata grassland and prospects for their preservation under agricultural intensification in Northeast Luzon, The Philippines

Frequent burning and grazing and cultivation of cash crops increasingly threaten forest patches in hilly grassland in Northeast Luzon, yet their importance as a resource with multiple environmental functions and forest products persists. The aim of this study is to identify different types of forest patches, and their condition under present land-use intensification, and discuss prospects for their integration into sustainable local farming systems. Five types of forest patches are distinguished, both natural and planted ones, including rows of trees, woody patches, gallery forests, hill-slope forests and homegarden conglomerations. Natural woody patches and gallery forests in Imperata grassland are subject to degradation and land-use conversion under conditions of agricultural intensification. Woody patches in grassland affected by frequent burning and grazing cover small areas (66% below 50 m² as opposed to 28% in protected grassland) and contain relatively few woody plant species (25 woody species in total as opposed to 82 where protected). Yet where well managed, they may provide a variety of products for sale and subsistence, covering emergency needs and giving off-season cash income to rural communities. Moreover they serve like the gallery forest various ecological functions, carrying valuable indigenous tree species, retaining soil base nutrients, providing a continuous supply of organic matter and intercepting fine earth soil particles removed from bare surfaces. It is suggested that forest-patch management systems may be developed, taking into account both patch diversity and the diverse needs of rural communities, and to strengthen existing and undervalued functions of forest patches as permanent elements in an agricultural landscape.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Allometric models to estimate foliage biomass of Tamarindus indica in Burkina Faso

Tamarindus indica L. is a multi-purpose tropical species. In West Africa the local people use its leaves daily as a source of food, medicine and income. To prevent the over-exploitation of this species for its use for non-timber forest products, the estimation of foliage production needs to be adressed. This study aimed to (1) assess the effects of distribution zone and tree size on foliage production of T. indica in Burkina Faso, and (2) develop allometric equations to estimate foliage biomass of this species. A semi-destructive method was used to assess foliage biomass of 120 trees over six stem-diameter size classes within two distribution zones (Sub-Sahelian and North-Sudanian). A two-way ANOVA was perfomed to test the effect of distribution zone and tree size class on foliage production. Allometric equations were fitted with 80% of the sample trees randomly selected and 20% were used for model validation. The results showed that between the two factors, tree size class exhibited a significant effect on foliage production of T. indica both in the Sub-Sahelian and North-Sudanian zones. Allometric equations to predict the foliage biomass of T. indica were similar for its distribution zones in Burkina Faso. Therefore, a general model is adequate for the prediction of foliage biomass of T. indica at a larger scale including a variety of ecological conditions. Stem diameter at 1.3 m aboveground was the most accurate predictor variable (adjusted R² = 0.81) with a prediction error of ?2.76%. This study opens up new potentials to develop and use allometric equations for West African trees of high socio-economic value in their effective and sustainable use for non-timber forest products.     

Non-timber forest products in rural Mali: a study of villager use

Malian Forest Service activities and policies have evolved since the beginning of colonialism under the assumption that forests and their products are the property of the government. Today the importance of involving local people in forest management is recognized. The purpose of this research was to determine the range of non-timber forest products local people use either for direct consumption or for income generation and to identify the trees/shrubs that yield these products in natural forests, fallow lands and crop fields. A gender analysis of the data was also conducted. The data were collected from face-to-face structured interviews using open-ended questions of 92 randomly sampled households in six Malian villages. One-half of the interviews were conducted with women and the other half were with men. The study identified 55 different non-timber forest products produced by 108 plant species. Almost all (99%) of the products identified are used for personal consumption, whereas 68% of the products are also used to generate income. Products such as firewood, leaves for sauces, shea nuts for oil/butter, seeds for condiments and nuts/seeds for soap are the most frequently mentioned products collected by women. Different categories of products like utensils/house materials, animal feed and construction materials (thatch, poles, mats) are the products most frequently collected by men. Ninety percent of the products collected are found in the natural forests; 63% are collected from trees on fallow lands and 51% from scattered trees in crop fields. Forest Service support of villagers using non-timber forest products would create an economic relationship between the forest and the local people. This is essential for the protection of the forest because people will safeguard their interests.     

An empirical analysis of the driving forces of forest cover change in northeast China

In this paper, we investigate the interactions and feedbacks between the drivers of forest cover and other land uses by building a novel longitudinal dataset and adopting alternative modeling strategies. Our longitudinal dataset integrates land-use and land-cover change (LULCC) information, derived by interpreting satellite imagery, with social-economic statistics across eight counties in Heilongjiang over a period of 37 years. Employing both instrument variable and system of equations methods, our models capture the inherent endogeneity embedded in the land-use changes and the effects of such factors as demographic change, economic development, and management transition on the forest condition. To validate the robustness of our models, a series of identification, endogeneity, and other tests are conducted. Our results demonstrate the dominant role of agricultural expansion in forestland loss as well as the importance of considering the substitution between forestland and wetland in analyzing the drivers of LULCC in general and deforestation in particular. The significant coefficient of the Natural Forest Protection Program implies that it has played a positive role in protecting local forests. The positive coefficient of built-up area in the farmland equation suggests a strong link between farming and residential/commercial construction; likewise, the negative coefficient of irrigation indicates that wetland loss is adversely affected by the change in local cropping pattern. It is hoped that these and other findings will improve our knowledge of the forest dynamics and their socioecological drivers, leading to more effective policy making and implementation and, ultimately, better resource conditions.     

Drivers of Deforestation in the Lake Victoria Crescent,Uganda

We examined key drivers of deforestation in the Lake Victoria Crescent, Uganda from 1989 to 2009 through a case study approach with a multiple-case design. Nineteen focus groups with local community members and forest officials, archival analysis, and field observation revealed both proximate causes and underlying drivers of deforestation. Proximate causes of deforestation included agricultural expansion into forests, unsustainable extraction of wood forest products, and clearing of forests for nonagricultural uses. Underlying drivers of these proximate causes included policy and institutional factors, economic factors, population growth, technological changes, and changes in culture—each resulting in alienation of local people from forest resources. Alienation of local people, defined as a psychological dispossession of responsibility for forest resources, is posited as the most important underlying driver of deforestation. We discuss the importance of the involvement of local people in the management and maintenance of forests in the Lake Victoria Crescent.     

Development and evaluation of local communities incentive programs for improving the traditional forest management: A case study of Northern Zagros forests,Iran

We examined the local community incentive programs to improve traditional forest management in three forested villages in Baneh city, Kurdistan province in the northern Zagros forests of western Iran. Zagros forests cover 6.07 million ha and support rich plant and animal diversity. Changes in local community social and economic sys-tems and the inefficiency of traditional forest management led to a criti-cal situation in the stability of forest regeneration in recent decades. Due to a shortage of productive and arable lands and resulting unemployment and poverty, people overexploited the Zagros forests. Outside interven-tion in traditional forest management creates conflicts between local peoples and forest management organizations. To achieve sustainable forest management, including forest resources conservation and im-provement of natural resource based livelihoods of communities, it is desirable to implement Forestry Incentive Programs （FIP） based on the important functions of forests. Detailed information on the so-cio-economics of communities, the effect of forests on local livelihoods, and lists of products extracted from the forest were obtained from a sur-vey of local communities though questionnaire, interview and observa-tion. We studied 276 households in three villages and completed 76 ques-tionnaires by householders in the quantitative analysis. Sampling was performed by simple random sampling （SRS）. The needs of rural com-munities, such as livestock husbandry, mainly arise from the characteris-tics and environmental features of villages. We identified the driving forces, pressures, status, impacts and responses （DPSIR） to design incen-tive programs, by DPSIR analysis and interaction analysis. Evaluation of local community benefits from forests showed that in order to improve forest management, 319 dollars per year would be needed by each family as an incentive in 2010 to prevent lopping and firewood collecting, the main causes of forest degradation.