Contamination of Salmonella spp. in a pig finishing herd, from the arrival of the animals to the slaughterhouse

The aim of the present study was to investigate the contamination sources and the transmission of Salmonella within a pig finishing herd in Italy. Nine sets of samples were collected during the fattening period from cleaned and disinfected pens, animals at different ages (4 days after arrival, 90, 150, 170 and 240 days of age) and at slaughter. Salmonella was isolated from cleaned pens, individual faecal samples, the truck used to transport the pigs to the abattoir and after slaughter (cecal contents, mesenteric lymph nodes and carcasses). Several serovars were isolated: Salmonella typhimurium and Salmonella derby on farm; Salmonella bovismorbificans, Salmonella bredeney, Salmonella blockley, Salmonella hadar and Salmonella corvallis from the truck; S. derby, S. hadar, S. bredeney, S. bovismorbificans and Salmonella infantis at slaughter. Antibiotic resistance of the strains was tested and PFGE was carried out to investigate the on-farm epidemiology of Salmonella. The results showed that the environmental contamination may have represented a major source of infection for the pigs both on farm and during transport to the abattoir.     

Longitudinal Investigation of Methicillin‐Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Piglets

Methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged as an important public health concern and pigs have been implicated in human infections. Cross‐sectional studies have demonstrated that MRSA can be commonly found in pigs internationally, but little is known about age‐related changes in MRSA colonization. This study evaluated MRSA colonization in piglets in a longitudinal manner. Serial nasal swabs were collected from piglets born to 10 healthy sows. The prevalence of MRSA colonization on days 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21 was 1% (1/100), 6.2% (3/97), 8.5% (8/94), 4.4% (4/91) and 20% (18/91) respectively, with an overall pre‐weaning prevalence of 34.5%. The prevalence on days 28, 42, 56 and 70 was 34% (31/91), 65% (57/88), 50% (44/88) and 42% (36/87) respectively, with an overall post‐weaning prevalence of 85%. Eighty‐four percent of piglets from negative sows and 100% of piglets from positive sows that survived at least until the time of weaning were colonized with MRSA at one or more times during the study. There was a significant association between sow and piglet colonization. The age of the piglet was significantly associated with the probability of colonization. No piglets or sows received antimicrobials during the study period. These results indicate that age must be considered when designing surveillance programmes and interpreting results of different studies on MRSA.     

Characterisation of the pig acute phase protein response to road transport

The acute phase protein (APP) response was evaluated after prolonged transportation of pigs under commercial conditions. Elevated serum APP concentrations were observed in two groups of boars immediately after their arrival at a destination farm compared with within-animal control samples obtained one month later. The effect was more pronounced in the first group of pigs conveyed under average transport conditions (Transport 1, 24 h), although the second group was transported for a longer time period (Transport 2, 48 h) but in superior transport conditions. In a second trial, pigs were sampled before transport, on arrival at an abattoir (following 12 h transport), and at the slaughter-line (after 6 h lairage). Significant increases in major acute phase protein (Pig-MAP), haptoglobin, serum amyloid A, C-reactive protein, and a decrease in apolipoprotein A-I, were observed at slaughter. The results demonstrate that shipment of pigs by road can result in an APP response that is probably related to the stress of transport.     

A study of the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in pigs and in personnel involved in the pig industry in Ireland

To evaluate the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the pig population in Ireland, nasal swabbing was employed in three abattoirs to screen 440 pigs from 41 geographically distributed farms. One hundred individuals involved in the pig industry were also nasally screened. No MRSA isolates were recovered from the pigs and only two of the humans tested were identified as MRSA carriers. Importantly, MRSA was not obtained from pig producers, veterinarians or abattoir employees, but was isolated from individuals working in the wider pig industry. Multi-locus sequence typing revealed that these isolates belonged to sequence types (ST) ST22 and ST1307; the latter is a previously unreported single locus variant of ST5. Five dust samples from each of the three slaughterhouses were culture-negative for MRSA. These results indicate that porcine colonisation by MRSA, and in particular the animal-related strain MRSA-ST398, was not common in Ireland during the period of study.     

A Survey of Gastrointestinal Pig Parasites on Free-range,Organic and Conventional Pig Farms in The Netherlands

The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in suckling piglets, weaners, fattening pigs and sows was studied from November 2001 to October 2002 on 16 free-range farms (FRF), 11 organic farms (OF) and 9 conventional farms (CF) by means of faecal examinations of composite samples. Each farm was visited four times with a 3-month interval. Infections with coccidia were found on 43.8% of the FRF, 90.9% of the OF and 66.7% of the CF. Sows had the highest prevalence, particularly on FRF (87.5%) and OF (80%).Ascaris suum was present on 50% of the FRF, 72.7% of the OF and 11.1% of the CF, whereas fattening pigs on FRF (42.9%) and OF (54.5%) had the highest prevalence.Oesophagostomum spp. were observed on 25% of the FRF, 27.2% of the OF and 22.2% of the CF. The infection was most prevalent in the sows on all farm types: 37.5% on FRF, 30% on OF and 22.2% on CF.Trichuris suis was found on 37.5% of the FRF, 36.4% of the OF and 11.1% of the CF. Again, this infection was most prevalent in the sows, particularly on the FRF (50%) and OF (30%). No other gastrointestinal parasite species were found and no clinical signs were observed. No seasonal trends could be distinguished. In many cases, when an age group on a farm was positive for a certain parasite, it remained so during the whole study. This indicates that this parasite was really ‘endemic’ on that farm. The results of this study demonstrate that the prevalence of helminth infections of pigs on farms with outdoor facilities is higher than in pigs on conventional farms.     

MRSA CC398 in the pig production chain

In 2005, a distinct clone of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA CC398) was found in pigs and people in contact with pigs. The structure of the pig production chain in high technology pig husbandry enables pathogens to spread during animal trading, with an increasing prevalence in herds further down the chain. The objective of this study was to quantify the effect of the MRSA status of the supplying herd on the MRSA status of the receiving herd in order to gain more insight into the role of animal trading as a transmission route for MRSA CC398. Nasal samples (60-80 pigs per herd) were collected from 38 herds; in 20 herds, environmental samples were collected as well. Ten MRSA-positive herds (based on the results of nasal swabs of 10 individual pigs per herd) from a prior study were included in the data analysis. Herds were classified as MRSA positive if at least one sample tested positive. The 48 herds were part of 14 complete (40 herds) and 4 incomplete (8 herds) pig production chains. Fifty-six percent of the herds were classified as MRSA positive. MRSA-positive herds were observed at the start (breeding herds), middle (farrowing herds) and the end (finishing herds) of the pig production chain. All of the herds in 8 chains tested MRSA positive;, all of the herds in 5 chains tested MRSA negative and in the remaining 5 chains, MRSA-positive and MRSA-negative herds were detected. Seven spa types were found, which were all previously confirmed to belong to CC398. All of the isolates were susceptible to mupirocin, linezolid, rifampicin, fusidic acid and cotrimoxazole. Resistance against tetracycline, erythromycin and clindamycin was found in 100, 74 and 76% of the isolates, respectively. Seventy-nine percent of herds with a MRSA-positive supplier of pigs were MRSA positive, whereas 23% of herds with a MRSA-negative supplier were MRSA positive (OR=10.8; 95% CI: 1.5-110.1; P=0.011). The presence of entirely MRSA-positive and MRSA-negative chains and the strong association between the MRSA status of herds and their suppliers illustrates a large risk associated with purchasing pigs from MRSA-positive herds; a top-down strategy for future control programs is, therefore, a basic requirement. However, 23% of herds with a MRSA-negative supplier were MRSA positive and furthermore, 46% of the herds at the top of the pig production chain without a supplier tested MRSA positive. This underlined the need for the identification of additional risk factors for MRSA.     

Occurrence and characterization of livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in pig industries of northern Thailand

This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA) in pigs, farm workers, and the environment in northern Thailand, and to assess LA-MRSA isolate phenotypic characteristics. One hundred and four pig farms were randomly selected from the 21,152 in Chiang Mai and Lamphun provinces in 2012. Nasal and skin swab samples were collected from pigs and farm workers. Environmental swabs (pig stable floor, faucet, and feeder) were also collected. MRSA was identified by conventional bacterial culture technique, with results confirmed by multiplex PCR and multi locus sequence typing (MLST). Herd prevalence of MRSA was 9.61% (10 of 104 farms). Among pigs, workers, and farm environments, prevalence was 0.68% (two of 292 samples), 2.53% (seven of 276 samples), and 1.28% (four of 312 samples), respectively. Thirteen MRSA isolates (seven from workers, four from environmental samples, and two from pigs) were identified as Staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec IV sequences type 9. Antimicrobial sensitivity tests found 100% of the MRSA isolates resistant to clindamycin, oxytetracycline, and tetracycline, while 100% were susceptible to cloxacillin and vancomycin. All possessed a multidrug-resistant phenotype. This is the first evidence of an LA-MRSA interrelationship among pigs, workers, and the farm environment in Thailand.     

Longitudinal study of hepatitis E virus infection in Spanish farrow-to-finish swine herds

Hepatitis E is a zoonotic disease and is highly prevalent in European swine livestock. There is a need to compare the infection dynamics of hepatitis E virus (HEV) between herds with the same production system and determine the percentage of animals that could arrive infected at slaughter age. Therefore, a longitudinal study was performed in six Spanish farrow-to-finish affected farms. Twenty piglets per farm were monitored from nursery to slaughter. RT-PCR and serology techniques were applied to analyze longitudinally collected sera and/or faecal samples. Liver and bile samples were also taken at the abattoir. Anti-HEV IgM were firstly detected at 7 weeks of age in 5 farms whereas at 13 weeks of age in 1 farm (farm 2). At slaughter age 50–100% of pigs had seroconverted to anti-HEV IgG in the former 5 farms whereas in the other herd only 5% of pigs were IgG seropositive (farm 2). Six out of 96 livers and 5 out of 80 biles analyzed were HEV positive at the abattoir (total percentage of infected animals: 11.5%). All these positive animals had already seroconverted except 2 pigs of farm 2. Hence, pigs can be seronegative at slaughter age being infected during the latest fattening period. Manipulation of HEV-infected livers or other organs from pigs could be considered a possible route of transmission in Spanish abattoirs. This study represents the first longitudinal survey on swine HEV infection dynamics conducted in different herds.     

Occurrence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in rats living on pig farms

In The Netherlands, MRSA ST398 has emerged in hospitals and human carriers have been associated with exposure to pigs and cattle. High prevalences of MRSA ST398 in pigs and pig farmers have been determined and the transmission routes of MRSA on pig farms need to be elucidated. In the south of the Netherlands, in recent years, the black rat (Rattus rattus) has emerged as a prominent rodent on livestock farms. From March till May 2008, a survey on MRSA in rats living on livestock farms in the south of The Netherlands and the north of Belgium was conducted. In total, 40 black rats (R. rattus) and 3 brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) were collected on 12 farms including five pig farms, five poultry farms, one mixed pig and veal farm and one goat farm. MRSA ST398 was detected in black rats captured at two of the five pig farms as well as in a black rat living on the mixed pig and veal farm. From one black rat captured at another pig farm MRSA ST 97 was isolated. Considering the behaviour of rats on livestock farms, it is concluded that rats might play a role in the spread and persistence of MRSA on pig farms.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in sows from slaughterhouses and in pigs from an indoor and an outdoor farm in Argentina

The objective of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies from slaughter sows and from pigs raised at an indoor and an outdoor swine farm. Serum samples were obtained from 230 slaughter sows belonging to 83 farms distributed in 5 provinces. Blood samples were collected monthly from pigs of different ages from an intensive management indoor farm (farm 1). A cross-sectional study was carried-out from an outdoor farm (farm 2). All sera were tested for T. gondii antibodies by the modified agglutination test (MAT), using formalin-fixed tachyzoites as antigen. An antibody titer > or =1:25 was considered positive. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 87 (37.8%) of 230 sows sera. Distribution among provinces was: 37.1% from Santa Fe, 62.8% from Buenos Aires, 3.3% from San Luis, 58.7% from La Pampa and 24% from Córdoba. Four of 88 (4.5%) serum samples from farm 1 had antibodies to T. gondii and none of the negative pigs seroconverted. However, 45 of 112 samples from farm 2 were positive (40.2%) with the following distribution: sows 100%; nursery 40%; growers 13.8% and fatteners 20%. It is concluded that the prevalence of T.gondii antibodies among sows seems to be quite variable. T. gondii prevalence was related to the facilities and management of the farm.     

Neurocysticercosis in free roaming pigs – a slaughterhouse survey

To investigate the prevalence of neurocysticercosis among free ranging pigs and to study the type of pathomorphological lesions in affected brains, a total of 200 brains were collected from pigs slaughtered at a local abattoir, between August, 2005 to March, 2006. Gross and histopathological examination revealed 3 % (6/200) occurrence of neurocysticercosis in pigs. Taenia solium cysticercosis is an under-rated zoonosis and is a leading cause of epilepsy due to neurocysticercosis in human population of India. The prevailing situation warrants immediate implementation of effective control measures for this dreaded disease.     

Effect of magnesium sulphate and l-tryptophan and genotype on the feed intake, behaviour and meat quality of pigs

Sixty-nine entire male pigs with different halothane genotype (homozygous halothane positive — nn-, n = 36; and homozygous halothane negative — NN-, n = 33) were fed with a supplementation of magnesium sulphate (Mg) and/or l-tryptophan (Trp) in the diet for 5 days before slaughter. Animals were housed individually and were submitted to stressful ante mortem conditions (mixed in the lorry according to treatments and transported 1 h on rough roads). Individual feed intake was recorded during the 5-d treatment. At the abattoir, pig behaviour was assessed in the raceway to the stunning system and during the stunning period by exposure to CO₂. Muscle pH, colour, water holding capacity, texture and cathepsin activities were determined to assess meat quality. The number of pigs with an individual feed intake lower than 2 kg/day was significantly different among diets (P < 0.05; Control: 8.7%; Mg&Trp: 43.5%; Trp: 17.4%) and they were considered to have inadequate supplement intake. During the ante mortem period, 15.2% of pigs included in the experiment died, and this percentage decreased to 8.7% in those pigs with a feed intake > 2 kg/day, all of them from the stress-sensitive pigs (nn). In general, no differences were observed in the behaviour of pigs along the corridor leading to the stunning system and inside the CO₂ stunning system. During the stunning procedure, Trp diet showed shorter periods of muscular excitation than control and Mg&Trp diets. The combination of a stressful ante mortem treatment and Mg&Trp supplementation led to carcasses with high incidence of severe skin lesions. Different meat quality results were found when considering all pigs or considering only those with adequate supplement intake. In this later case, Trp increased pH₄₅ (6.15) vs Control diet (5.96) in the Longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle (P < 0.05) and pH at 24 h (Trp: 5.59 vs C: 5.47) led to a higher incidence of dark, firm and exudative (DFD) traits in SM muscle (P < 0.05). Genotype affected negatively all the meat quality traits. Seventy-five percent of LT and 60.0% of the SM muscles from nn pigs were classified as pale, soft and exudative (PSE), while none of the NN pigs showed these traits (P < 0.0001). No significant differences were found between genotypes on the incidence of DFD meat.Due to the negative effects observed in the Mg&Trp group in feed intake and carcass quality, the utilization of a mixture of magnesium sulphate and tryptophan is not recommended.     

Methicillin‐Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ST398 in Pig Farms and Multispecies Farms

During the last few years, methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ST398 has been isolated frequently from livestock, especially from pigs and to a lesser extent from cattle and poultry. To gain insight into the distribution of this bacterium in pig farms versus multispecies farms, 30 Belgian farms (10 pig, 10 pig/poultry and 10 pig/cattle farms) were screened for the presence of MRSA. On each farm, 10 nasal swabs were taken from pigs. When present, cattle (n = 10) were sampled in the nares and poultry (n = 10) in the nares, earlobes and cloaca. A selection of the obtained isolates were further characterized using multilocus sequence typing (MLST), spa typing, SCCmec typing, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multiple‐locus variable‐number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. On 26 of 30 farms, MRSA was isolated from pigs. Furthermore, MRSA was also isolated from poultry and cattle on one pig/poultry and five pig/cattle farms, respectively. All tested MRSA isolates belonged to ST398. Eight spa types (t011, t034, t567, t571, t1451, t2974, t3423 and t5943) were detected, among which t011 predominated. SCCmec cassettes type IVa and V were present in 20% and 72% of the isolates, respectively. When combining the results of the two remaining typing methods, PFGE and MLVA, eighteen genotypes were obtained of which one genotype predominated (56% of the positive farms). All MRSA isolates were resistant to tetracycline. Resistance to trimethoprim, aminoglycosides, macrolides, lincosamides, fluoroquinolones and chloramphenicol was also observed. In conclusion, there was no effect of the farm type on the MRSA status of the pigs. A statistically significant difference was observed when comparing the pig/poultry or the pig/cattle MRSA status on the multispecies farms. Additionally, a wide variety of MRSA ST398 strains was found within certain farms when combining different typing methods.     

High prevalence of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in pigs

Recently methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was isolated from pigs and pig farmers in The Netherlands. In order to assess the dissemination of MRSA in the Dutch pig population, we screened 540 pigs in 9 slaughterhouses, where a representative portion of Dutch pigs (63%) was slaughtered in 2005. We found 209 (39%) of the pigs to carry MRSA in their nares. Forty-four of 54 groups of 10 consecutive pigs (81%), each group from a different farm, and all slaughterhouses were affected. All MRSA isolates belonged to 1 clonal group, showing Multi-Locus Sequence Type 398 and closely related spa types (mainly t011, t108 and t1254). Three types of the Staphylococcal Chromosome Cassette (SCCmec) were found: III (3%), IVa (39%) and V (57%). All 44 tested isolates (1 isolate per group) were resistant to tetracycline, reflecting the high and predominant use of tetracyclines in pig husbandry. Twenty-three percent of the isolates were resistant to both erythromycin and clindamycin and 36% to kanamycin, gentamicin and tobramycin but only a single isolate was resistant to co-trimoxazole and none to ciprofloxacin and several other antibiotics. The percentage of MRSA positive pigs was significantly different among slaughterhouses and among groups within slaughterhouses, indicating a high prevalence of MRSA in pigs delivered from the farms as well as cross contamination in the slaughterhouses.     

Effect of supplementation with MgCO3 and l-Tryptophan on the welfare and on the carcass and meat quality of two halothane pig genotypes (NN and nn)

Sixty-one animals with different Halothane genes (homozygous halothane positive, n = 34; and homozygous halothane negative, n = 27) were fed with three diets (control group, with no supplement; magnesium (Mg) group with 1.28 g MgCO₃/kg and tryptophan (Trp) group with 5 g l-Trp/kg) during the last 5 days before slaughter. Animals were submitted to minimal stress antemortem conditions. Pig behaviour was recorded at the experimental farm, raceway to the CO₂ stunning system and during the stunning period. Corneal reflexes were recorded after stunning as well. There were no differences in feed intake among diets (P > 0.05) during the 5 days of treatment. The halothane positive (nn) group had lower intake than the halothane negative (NN) group (P < 0.01). The behaviour of the pigs in the raceway did not differ (P > 0.05) among treatments or halothane genotype. A significant (P < 0.001) interaction diet  halothane was found in the time to appear the first retreat attempt during the exposure to the CO₂ system. In the nn group, the time of performing the first retreat attempt was later in the Mg (P < 0.05) than the control group. Moreover, in the Mg group, the nn had a later (P < 0.05) first retreat attempt than the NN. Thus, Mg supplementation could have a positive effect on welfare of nn pigs. The nn had a lower proportion of animals that showed corneal reflexes after stunning than NN, indicating a higher effectiveness of the stunning method in nn pigs. Neither Mg nor Trp affected carcass quality and meat quality parameters, although significant differences were found between genotypes.     

Occurrence of MRSA in air and housing environment of pig barns

A high prevalence of MRSA among farm animals, especially pigs, has been observed for some time. However, knowledge on transmission routes of MRSA in livestock production is still scarce. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of MRSA in pig house air as well as in samples from pigs and their housing environment in 27 MRSA positive pig barns of different sizes and production types. In 85.2% of all barns MRSA was detected in the animal house air. Impingement turned out to be a more sensitive sampling technique than filtration. Other environmental samples such as boot swabs or faeces showed prevalences of MRSA from 55.6% to 85.2% at sample level. The level of MRSA was 88.3% for pooled and 82.1% for single nasal swabs, in skin swabs the one was 87.7%, the others was 78.7%. Spa typing of isolates from air and nasal swabs showed predominantly spa types t011 and t034. MRSA prevalences in pigs as well as in various environmental samples were significantly higher in fattening farms than in breeding farms. This study provides good reference that there could be an airborne transmission of MRSA within pig herds indicating a potential contamination of the environment of barns.     

Prevalence and Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus in Connecticut Swine and Swine Farmers

This study explores the characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in swine and their human handlers in a convenience sample of 35 farms in Connecticut. Husbandry practices are clearly different from better‐known concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) with less intensive rearing conditions. Nasal samples were collected from 263 pigs and nine humans on 35 farms during the 2010 rearing season. Samples were analysed using established microbiology methods, and resulting methicillin‐sensitive (MSSA) and resistant (MRSA) isolates were typed by pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and spa typing. PCR was used to detect the presence of the Panton‐Valentine Leukocidin (PVL) gene, a cytotoxin usually associated with CA‐MRSA infection. A farm assessment form and questionnaire were used to obtain the information about husbandry practices and human exposure risk, respectively. Staphylococcus aureus colonized swine and humans were found in 51% (18/35) of the farms sampled at a rate of 30% (85/259) and 22% (2/9), respectively. Eight pigs and two humans were MRSA positive on five farms. MRSA in swine was related to healthcare‐associated (HA), community‐associated (CA) or livestock‐associated (LA) MRSA strains, whereas humans were colonized with HA‐MRSA. On the basis of spa typing, there was evidence of human–animal transmission thereby signifying humanosis/reverse zoonoses. The PVL gene was found in 88% (7/8) of MRSA swine isolates, the first time this gene has been seen in colonized pigs sampled on US farm. MSSA isolates belonged to six spa types: t337 (41%), t034 (12%), t334 (12%), t4529 (12%), t8760 (18%) and t1166 (6%) including LA strains. This is the first time spa type t8760 has been reported and the only MSSA with the PVL gene. In summary, MRSA including LA strains (LA‐MRSA) can be found on small farms with different husbandry practices from CAFOs, suggesting that preventive measures for zoonotic MRSA infection should address a range of animal production.     

A study of preslaughter pig handling and stunning in selected South African Highveld Region abattoirs

The study hypothesis was that pre-slaughter handling is not conducted in such a way that pigs can be considered humanely slaughtered, nor is it conducive to promoting those properties of fresh meat that could enhance pork quality. The 1st phase of the investigation was aimed at confirming the present compliance level within the prescribed norms. To this end the importance of stunning induction requirements for effective electrical stunning, the welfare implications relating to the pre-slaughter handling of pigs and the stunning and sticking techniques were investigated. Pre-slaughter welfare of the pigs at the abattoir was found to be influenced at the outset by the origin and type of pig slaughtered, the daily throughput range of pigs and the type of abattoir involved. A disappointing pre-arrival aspect was that deficiencies in road motor vehicles were observed while off-loading pigs. Through poor design or lack of maintenance, another factor that hampered free movement of pigs was the off-loading facilities. The nature of animal behaviour in the pens, in the passages and when going into the stunning area was directly related to the pig handling efficiency and to the nature and extent of design and maintenance problems with equipment. None of the abattoirs had a well designed in-feed to a well planned stunning area/facility, and a very high level of pig pre-slaughter stress prevailed. The optimum position of the electrodes is virtually impossible to attain under practical conditions and the practice of repeat application of electrical stunning is common. Of the total sample size (n = 1175), 34% were difficult to shackle, 90% of these being from the abattoirs tending to slaughter more routinely a wide range of different sized pigs. In this survey 149 pigs (13%) required more than a single sticking attempt to bleed out properly, considerably higher than in other published reports.     

Survey of the effectiveness of stunning procedures used in Spanish pig abattoirs

Two pig abattoirs (A and B) equipped with an automated head-only and head-to-chest electrical stunning system, and two (C and D) equipped with a manual carbon dioxide stunning system, were evaluated to compare the effectiveness of stunning in a total of 10,454 pigs slaughtered under commercial conditions. In the abattoirs with the electrical stunning system, the percentage of animals that responded to a nose prick was significantly lower (P<0.05) in abattoir B, where a higher current intensity was used (P<0.05), than in abattoir A. No righting reflex was observed in the electrically stunned pigs. In the abattoirs with the carbon dioxide stunning system, the percentage of animals that responded to a nose prick and showed a righting reflex was significantly lower (P<0.05) in abattoir C, where the duration of the carbon dioxide cycle was longer and the interval between discharge from the system to sticking was shorter (P<0.05), than in D. Comparing the electrical and carbon dioxide stunning systems, the pigs stunned with carbon dioxide were significantly more responsive to a nose prick (P<0.05) and 25 per cent of them showed a righting reflex. Under the conditions of the study the fully automated head-only stunning with additional chest electrodes appeared to be more effective and less susceptible to incorrect handling than the manual carbon dioxide stunning system.     

Mortalities in bobby calves associated with long distance transport

OBJECTIVE: To investigate how distance of transportation and time of year affects mortality of bobby calves. METHOD: The overall mortality of bobby calves transported by road to an abattoir in Northern Victoria was investigated by the analysis of mortality data from 1998 to 2000 from the abattoir records. RESULTS: Mortality of bobby calves increased exponentially with distance of transportation to the abattoir. The association between distance travelled and mortality was greatest in August. The increased mortality associated with greater distance travelled occurred during transportation rather than after arrival at the abattoir. The highest mortality of bobby calves was seen in October, followed by September, and the lowest was observed in August. CONCLUSION: Limits on the distance of transportation of bobby calves should be incorporated into future codes of practice to reduce the mortality of bobby calves.