Using SPOT images and field sampling to map burn severity and vegetation factors affecting post forest fire erosion risk

Runoff and erosion rates are known to increase substantially after a major forest fire. Erosion control measures therefore need to be put into place quickly after a large fire, and determining where to locate the measures requires accurate mapping of post fire erosion risk. Burn severity can be determined from field observations, but these are costly and time consuming. Satellite imagery is an alternative to quickly map burn severity for erosion mapping purposes. Post fire erosion decreases as forest vegetation recovers and this is related to both pre fire vegetation characteristics and soil properties. The objectives of this study were to test the use of SPOT multispectral images for mapping burn severity, pre fire vegetation density, and longer term (2.5 years) vegetation recovery. Indices tested include the Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Differenced Normalized Burn Ratio (dNBR), and Differenced Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (dNDVI). Indices were compared to field data gathered immediately after the fire and about 2.5 years later. The multi-temporal indices (dNBR and dNDVI) were more useful for burn severity mapping in the heterogeneous forest–scrubland–vineyard environment where bedrock and vineyard surfaces were confused with burned areas when using single images (NBR and NDVI). All of the post fire indices showed traces of the fire 2.5 years later; this was confirmed using Analysis of Variance where differences in indices were related to original ground cover (pine forest, mixed forest, mostly bedrock and vineyards) and the burn scar. Pre fire vegetation cover was less successfully mapped using the NDVI according to the initial field observations. Similarly, none of the post fire indices were able to distinguish differences in N–S vegetation recovery revealed by field measurements of understory vegetation height and cover; N facing slopes had deeper finer soils and these more favourable conditions led to greater vegetation growth than on S facing slopes and topslope convexities. It is suggested that relationships between topography and soil properties can be useful for mapping both soil erodibility and post fire vegetation recovery.     

A tool for rapid assessment of erosion risk to support decision-making and policy development at the Ngenge watershed in Uganda

This study tests a rapid, user-friendly method for assessing changes in erosion risk, which yields information to aid policy development and decision-making for sustainable natural resources management. There is currently a lack of timely, up-to-date and current information to support policy development on sustainable natural resources management in Uganda. The study was carried out in the Ngenge watershed, a typical catchment in the Ugandan Highlands, characterised by deforestation in favour of subsistence agriculture without adequate soil and water conservation measures. The watershed is experiencing soil erosion, sedimentation and flooding problems which are threatening agricultural productivity and food security. Sustainable management of environmental resources is needed to ensure a livelihood for the rural population which is dependent on the land. Historical erosion risk was evaluated in three steps using multi-temporal satellite data. First, current erosion risk was assessed by combining slope and vegetation cover during periods of high intensity rainfall. The data used for the assessment was obtained from public (free) satellite images. Erosion risk was then linked to land use and finally to the change in vegetation cover over the years 1980-2000. The analysis of erosion risk using rainfall, slope and NDVI (Normalised Difference Vegetative Index) as a proxy for vegetation cover gives an indication of the current erosion risk in the area. The results of historical vegetation cover change analysis indicate an overall increase in areas under erosion risk in the study area from 1980 to 2000. This method of erosion risk mapping provides a quick and straightforward means for identifying priority areas for interventions for soil and water resource management. Considering that resources are limited, the interventions to be appropriate have to be focused mainly on areas affected by degradation.     

风沙土开垦中的风蚀研究

针对以往对土壤风蚀与土地开垦的关系缺乏定量研究，本文以野外实地采集的风沙土样为实验材料，对土地开垦过程中影响风蚀的两个主要因素－地表破坏与植被破坏分别进行风洞实验，结果表明，土壤风蚀率随地表破坏率的增大呈二次幂函数增加；随植被盖度的减少呈指数增加。综合地表破坏及植被盖度对土壤风蚀的影响，最后得出，土壤风蚀率随土地开垦率的增大呈指数增大。在此基础上提出了风沙土开垦中，有效地防止土壤风蚀需要掌握的临界     

Identification of priority areas for controlling soil erosion

Conservation prioritization is an important consideration for planning of natural resources management, allowing decison makers to implement management strategies that are more sustainable in the long-term. However, only a current erosion status or a relative index cannot exactly identify priority area for conservation. The objective of this paper is to identify conservation priorities by a specific multicriteria evaluation method. Trends in erosion risk indicate regions of increasing erosion risk and are also chosen as one of the evaluation criteria to identify the priorities based on the instability of soil erosion in the Yongding river basin. In this paper, vegetation cover, land-use, and slope gradient are used to assess erosion risk and trends in erosion risk are obtained by comparing the results of erosion risk between 2000 and 2006. Using this information, the priority conservation areas are graded into six levels. The two highest priority levels cover the regions with severe erosion or a substantial recent increase in erosion risk (4722.56 km², or 11.82% of the study area), and are recommended as erosion control regions with appropriate conservation strategies. The middle two levels cover the regions with stable erosion status or slight change, needing only minor measures. The method presented is fast and straightforward, showing good potential for successful application in other areas.     

Design of diverter berms for soil erosion control and biorestoration along pipeline rights-of-way

Abstract Diverter berms are used to control soil erosion along restored pipeline corridors between the time the pipe is installed and the establishment of a vegetation cover. Current practice, based on standard design procedures, is often inadequate in areas of steep slopes and erosive rainfall because the resulting berm channels are too steeply graded and too widely spaced, and insufficient attention is given to their outlets. The Universal Soil Loss Equation provides a more flexible procedure for determining the spacing required to achieve a specified erosion target for given conditions of rainfall, soils and slopes. Where the required spacings are not feasible because they are too close, spacings should be based on ensuring that flow velocity does not exceed 80% of the maximum non-eroding velocity, and additional supporting erosion-control measures should be provided. Channels should be graded at 0.4% and the grade should never exceed 2%. The choice of type of outlet should be determined by the erodibility of the soil, the steepness of the slope, vegetation cover and whether the outlet slope is on undisturbed or made-up ground. Broad-based berms should be used as an alternative to narrow-based ones where there is a risk of damage from vehicles.     

Assessment of soil degradation in the Canary Islands (Spain)

In the Canary Islands a number of factors, both natural and induced by human activity, act on the fragile ecosystems and agricultural land to cause increasing problems with desertification and progressive degradation of soil productivity. the results of an assessment of soil degradation in the Canary Islands, The processes, causes and impacts, are presented in this paper. Although several processes and factors contribute to soil degradation in the Canary Islands, two have been found to exert a greater qualitative influence: (a) accelerated erosion (water and aeolian); (b) salinization-sodification (natural and induced by agricultural use). Approximately 40 per cent of the Canary Islands' land is undergoing rapid erosion. the factors involved May, be grouped into: natural erosion—torrential rainfall, sparse vegetation, high soil erodibility, rugged relief; and erosion due to human activities—unsuitable management of arable soils on the steep slopes, overgrazing and deforestation. About 60 per cent of the surface of the archipelago, including areas given over to intensive agriculture, is affected by salinization.The main factors responsible are: natural—an arid climate and a regime of oceanic winds; and human activities—overexploitation of the aquifers, irrigation with water having a high salt and/or sodium content, intensive monoculture, and excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and other agrochemicals.     

陕北佳县“7·27”特大暴雨中心区侵蚀灾害调查

针对2012年陕北省佳县"7·27"特大暴雨侵蚀灾害,以暴雨中心区(王家砭镇)受灾最严重的行政村为对象,调查了"7·27"特大暴雨中道路、河岸、河道、房屋建筑、坡耕地、退耕林地、退耕草地等的侵蚀灾害情况。选取不同恢复措施的典型坡面,量测了地表植被、地形、土壤结皮等状况和"7·27"暴雨侵蚀产生的土壤侵蚀量。重点调查了不同生态恢复措施与恢复效果在该次暴雨中的抗侵蚀作用。对"7·27"特大暴雨侵蚀灾害的原因进行了初步分析。结果表明,植被盖度、植被物种多样性、坡度以及土壤生物结皮对于暴雨侵蚀的防御具有重要影响。     

南方红壤区不同植被措施坡面的水土流失特征

植被是南方红壤区水土流失治理的主要措施,为了研究不同的植被措施对坡面产流产沙的影响,以及对坡面侵蚀的抑制效果,在福建省长汀县选择乔灌草、灌草、草本、农作物、乔灌、封山育林、经济林等各植被措施下的标准径流小区,通过观测各种植被措施坡面的产流产沙情况,分析比较各小区的水土流失特征。结果表明植被能较好地调控坡面地表径流和土壤侵蚀。不同植被措施下坡面产流产沙分异规律明显,相对裸地,盖度高的乔灌草、灌草、草本等措施的水土流失量最小,水土保持效果最为明显。在不同的降雨量条件下,不同植被措施的坡面水土流失情况也表现出显著的差异。因此,在未来南方红壤植被恢复与生态环境建设过程中,通过各种植被治理措施的逐步实施,对改善当地的生态环境和水土流失的防治具有重要的意义。     

农牧交错带缓坡丘陵区土壤风蚀研究——以内蒙古后山地区为例

土壤风蚀与风、土壤粒径组成和地表植被覆盖度有关,在农牧交错带缓坡丘陵区,风蚀是很严重的自然灾害。通过在有风的天气对丘陵不同坡向和坡位的风速和风蚀量以及土壤粒径进行测定和分析,得出丘陵不同部位受侵蚀大小是坡顶大于北坡、北坡大于南坡。该项研究为控制缓坡丘陵土壤风蚀提供了理论支持。     

北京市大兴区风蚀危险度评价

选取永定河沙地为研究对象,根据研究区特点,收集并处理有关数据,在GIS中构建研究区基础数据库,结合危险性评价的指标体系确立原则,选取植被覆盖度、土地利用类型、土壤有机质含量、土壤类型为影响风蚀的因素,建立了评价体系,并在GIS环境中实现了对研究区风蚀危险性评价,确立了风蚀灾害危险等级分布,得到了风蚀危险程度分布图.     

基于多因子层次覆盖模型的潜在土壤侵蚀等级评价——以内蒙古林西县为例

以内蒙古林西县作为研究案例,采用降雨侵蚀力、主要地形体、土壤可蚀性、植被盖度及水土保持措施等参数,利用TM影像、DEM、土壤类型图、土地利用类型图等地理辅助数据与地面实测土壤理化性质及多年降水数据,在GIS与RS技术支持下,对5个单因子作用下研究区潜在水土流失风险进行评价.并基于多因子层次覆盖评价模型,对复合因子及多因子综合作用下研究区潜在水土流失状况进行评价.结果表明:地形、土壤与植被盖度3个因子对土壤侵蚀的贡献量较大,土地利用方式与降雨强度对土壤侵蚀的贡献量较小.5个因子综合作用的结果是:林西县有近77%的土地面积面临强度及强度以上水土流失的危险.其中轻度及微度水土流失面积占总土地面积的比例较小,二者共占总土地面积比例14.8%,主要分布在林西县西北部的中高山坡度较低地区;强度水土流失占22.8%,主要发生在北部的中山区及中部的河谷平川区;极强度水土流失占43.8%,主要发生在中部及南部低山丘陵区;剧烈水土流失面积占10.8%,集中分布在北部中山高坡区.     

沙层厚度和粒径组成对覆沙黄土坡面产流产沙的影响

片沙覆盖黄土区是水蚀风蚀交错带内土壤侵蚀最为强烈的区域,研究该区内土壤侵蚀特征可对水蚀风蚀交错带水土流失的预报及防治提供理论依据。采用室内模拟降雨,研究黄土坡面不同覆沙厚度(2 cm、5 cm和10 cm)和沙层粒径组成(100%0.25 mm、75%0.25 mm+25%0.25mm、50%0.25 mm+50%0.25 mm、未处理原沙和100%0.25 mm)对坡面产流产沙的影响。结果表明,覆沙黄土坡面较黄土坡面的初始产流时间明显延长,产流速率和产流量减小,产沙速率和产沙量增大,降雨过程中产流产沙波动性增大,且这些变化随覆沙厚度增加而明显加强;沙层粒径组成在不同覆沙厚度下对坡面产流产沙的影响不同,2 cm覆沙厚度坡面在降雨前期随粒径变粗产流产沙呈增大趋势,降雨后期无明显变化;5 cm覆沙厚度坡面随沙层粒径变粗产流速率呈增加趋势,降雨前期上覆粗粒径沙层坡面的侵蚀速率高于细粒径沙层坡面,降雨后期恰好相反;10 cm覆沙厚度的坡面产流产沙随沙层粒径组成变化不明显。典型覆沙黄土坡面的产流过程为雨水垂直入渗―沙土界面潜流―沙层边缘渗流―地表径流,产沙过程为沙层边缘渗流侵蚀―沙层坍塌重力侵蚀―地表径流输移,明显不同于无覆沙黄土坡面的超渗产流方式及溅蚀―片蚀―细沟侵蚀的侵蚀发展过程。     

A susceptibility model for post wildfire soil erosion in a temperate oceanic mountain area of Spain

In the North-West of the Cantabrian Range (North of Spain) the climate is oceanic and vegetation cover is continuous. In those areas where livestock farming prevails, wildfires are common, although small in size, their recurrence makes the phenomenon critical for the conservation of soils.In this study we propose that the structural stability of soil, associated with the type and size of the structural aggregates, may be a useful indicator to assess erosion susceptibility in burnt soils. We have chosen an area of approximately 485 km² over quartzitic lithologies where a high recurrence of wildfires has been noted and which displays several forms of erosion: gullying, rilling and erosion by overland flow. We have measured texture, percentage and degree of structural aggregate stability and the rate of infiltration in soils that have been burnt up to 3 times over the last 20 years and also in unburnt soils. The results obtained enable us to establish connections between wildfires, soil deterioration and macro-aggregate stability.We have used the stability of macro-aggregates as an indicator to elaborate a soil erosion susceptibility model for a large area of 10,600 km² with sharp relief and Atlantic climate. The model was constructed by combining three main factors: soil structural stability, fire intensity and relief. Variables related to soil structural stability and presence of basic cations have been derived from lithology (% Clay and % Silt + Fine Sand). The availability of humified organic material has also been taken into account as an additional variable in the formation of stable macro-aggregates. The expected fire intensity was calculated from the amount of inflammable material and the structure of the different vegetation types. Finally, the influence of relief was analyzed by considering the slope steepness.The resultant cartographic model presents five types of post wildfire soil erosion susceptibility. Those areas with the highest risk correspond to quartzite lithology regions, with long, steep hillsides covered with heaths. Those with the lowest risk correspond to limestone bedrock areas with gentle slopes and herbaceous vegetation. The accuracy of the model is determined by the scale of the original thematic cartography: 1:25000, and the cell size of the Digital Terrain Model is 50 × 50 m.     

兴隆小流域水土保持林规划

兴隆小流域位于松嫩平原北部的克山县境内,总面积12.641平方公里,由于不合理的经营,造成生态环境恶劣,水土流失严重。为了实现生态良性循环,本规划以适地适树为原则,采用合理的混交方式,网、带、片相结合,沟坡兼治,因地制宜,因害设防,为在该流域建设一个经济、用材、防护相结合,近期、中期、长远并举的综合水土保持林体系打下了良好的基础。该规划可供同类地区进行小流域水土保持规划时参考。     

2种扰动土壤工程堆积体坡面泥沙运移特征比对研究

为探究不同土壤类型对工程堆积体坡面侵蚀泥沙搬运的影响,选取构筑堆积体的2种扰动土壤,设定4个放水梯度(8,12,16,20 L/min)在32°条件下进行野外冲刷试验。结果表明:2种坡面产流产沙率均随冲刷延时呈"多峰多谷"变化;较扰动风沙土堆积体,扰动红壤堆积体产流产沙率均随流量增加上升速率较缓;流量20 L/min时,重力在扰动风沙土堆积体坡面侵蚀中发挥主导作用;各放水梯度下2种堆积体坡面累积产沙量与累积径流量均呈极显著线性关系(P0.01,R~20.99);随流量增大,搬运泥沙颗粒组成均接近原状土,扰动风沙土坡面径流搬运泥沙颗粒以砂粒为主( 60%),扰动红壤坡面径流搬运泥沙颗粒各组分比例相对均匀(各组分含量为24%～41%)。该研究结果可为不同土壤类型堆积体坡面水土流失防控措施科学配置提供理论依据。     

Identification of eroded areas using remote sensing in a badlands landscape on marls in the central Spanish Pyrenees

Identification of erosion areas on a regional scale can be very useful for environmental planning, and can help reduce land degradation and sediment yield to streams and reservoirs. Remote sensing techniques were used to determine erosion and erosion risk areas in a badlands landscape in the Ésera River catchment (Spanish Pyrenees). The size, sparse vegetation cover, and high erosion level in the badlands, enabled good visual and digital discrimination relative to other land covers and surfaces. The maximum likelihood algorithm was used for obtaining a spectral distance map to the bare soil signature characteristic of badlands on marls. The ROC (receiver operating characteristic) curve analysis was applied to this map for obtaining an optimum classification of the badlands. Two alternative classification thresholds were set to determine erosion areas and areas at risk of erosion. Two classification performance statistics, the model's sensitivity and specificity, were calculated as a means of expressing the uncertainty–omission and commission errors–associated to both maps. Most erosion risk areas coincided with low vegetation cover surrounding the badland areas.     

北方生态脆弱区土壤侵蚀敏感性空间分异

榆林是我国北方农牧交错带典型的生态脆弱区,土壤侵蚀严重制约着榆林地区人类生存和社会经济的可持续发展。以通用土壤流失方程为理论基础,选取自然因素(包括降雨、地形和土壤因子)和人为参数(包括生物措施、农业措施和社会经济措施因子)构建评估指标体系。在完成单因子敏感性评价的基础上,利用GIS空间叠加分析功能,对榆林市土壤侵蚀敏感性空间分异特征进行了综合研究。结果表明:研究区土壤侵蚀敏感性以中敏感为主,低敏感和高敏感次之,不敏感仅有零星分布。空间上土壤侵蚀敏感性程度呈南部黄土沟壑区向北部风沙草滩区递减趋势,高敏感区主要集中在靖边、定边两县南端,东部黄河沿岸以及南六县的部分地区。修正后的土壤侵蚀敏感性评价结果与前人研究的土壤侵蚀分布规律趋于一致,充分说明人类活动对土壤侵蚀也产生了极大影响。因此,急需转变不合理的土地利用方式,加强水土流失治理和植被恢复,针对不同敏感区实施分区管理,有效控制研究区能源开发建设对土壤侵蚀潜在发生的影响程度。     

巴基斯坦波特瓦尔高原土壤侵蚀调查报告

[目的]开展巴基斯坦的土壤侵蚀调查与典型单元的定量评价研究,旨在为巴基斯坦土壤侵蚀防治和了解泛第三极生态环境现状提供科学依据。[方法]在巴基斯坦北部的波特瓦尔高原,沿着穆里—伊斯兰堡—拉瓦尔品第—古杰尔汗—杰格瓦尔—保恩路线,选择了15个调查单元(12个小流域,3个矩形区),于2019年4月16—20日,对调查单元内的土壤侵蚀类型与特征、土地利用类型和水土保持措施等进行了调查。[结果]波特瓦尔高原的林地、草地整体土壤侵蚀较轻,以片蚀为主;土壤侵蚀主要发生在建设用地,开挖边坡、排土边坡、土路边坡和砖厂平台等人为形成的边坡和裸露平台在降雨和径流的作用下产生沟蚀;部分自然山坡因过度放牧,发生重力侵蚀和沟蚀。15个调查单元的平均土壤侵蚀速率平均值介于51.40～1 338.91 t/(km~2·a)之间。[结论]波特瓦尔高原的土壤侵蚀主要发生在建设用地,应对生产建设项目引起的土壤侵蚀进行监督治理,同时通过试验开发匹配的土壤侵蚀防治措施;北部穆里地区是巴基斯坦重要的水源涵养地,需要对该地区大量的建设项目进行合理的规划与审批,防止土壤侵蚀加剧,引起水质和生态环境恶化;应加强沟壑区溯源侵蚀的研究与防控,以保护农田,确保粮食安全;需加强对该区土壤侵蚀基础数据的采集,并对不同尺度的土壤侵蚀发生机理与过程进行研究,切实保障巴基斯坦土地资源。     

SOIL EROSION,CONSERVATION, AND ECO‐ENVIRONMENT CHANGES IN THE LOESS PLATEAU OF CHINA

As one of the best‐known areas in the world, the Loess Plateau, has long been suffering from serious soil erosion. The present paper reviewed the historical variation of climate, vegetation cover, and environment changes in order to understand the causes of severe soil erosion. Documentary evidence indicated that climate changes and vegetation cover were the dominant natural factors influencing the soil erosion rates during the Holocene. Intensive human activities consisting of warfare, population growth, deforestation, and soil and water conservation measures were responsible for the changes of soil erosion during the anthropogenic period. Spatial and temporal changes of specific sediment yields presented significant decrease within the last several decades, which resulted from decreasing rainfall, large scale soil and water conservation measures, agricultural irrigation, and reservoir construction. Different phase of soil conservation measures demonstrated the development of policies and techniques on soil erosion control. Effective strategies of soil and water conservation, consisting of terracing, afforestation, natural rehabilitation, and check‐dams construction, were carried out on the Loess Plateau during the past six decades. The progress of soil conservation measures confirmed that the check‐dams systems might be suitable for Loess hilly Plateau, and natural vegetation rehabilitation is the best way for soil erosion control and should be implemented in other regions with emphasis of improving the quality of conservation measures based on natural rehabilitation. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Factors responsible for soil erosion hazard in submontane Punjab, India

Abstract. Various factors of soil erosion (erodibility of the soil, slope of the land and nature of the plant cover) were studied in a representative area of submontane Punjab. In the north-eastern part of the area, slope steepness, slope length, convexo-concave and concave slope patterns and sparse vegetation were the dominant factors governing erosion hazard. In the central and lower south-western part of the area, high soil credibility and sparse vegetation were the most important factors.
Rill erosion was positively correlated ( r = 0.87) with slope steepness. The erodibility of the soil was strongly correlated ( r = 0.98) with amounts of silt + very fine sand.
In the area with steeper slopes, the lower segments of transects were prone to more erosion because of high credibility. Slope shapes such as convexo-concave and concave could result in sloughing and greater erosion hazard if not properly protected. Slopes facing southwest were more prone to erosion than others because of more solar energy, greater aridity, less vegetation and concave shape.