干旱胁迫下褪黑素对达乌里胡枝子幼苗生理生化特性的影响

试验旨在探究干旱胁迫下外源褪黑素对达乌里胡枝子(Lespedeza davurica)幼苗生理生化特性的影响。试验以达乌里胡枝子‘晋农1号’品种的幼苗为试验材料,在叶面喷施25、50、100、200、400 μmol/L褪黑素,分析褪黑素对自然干旱条件下达乌里胡枝子幼苗的生长情况和抗氧化特性的影响。结果显示,施加外源褪黑素可明显降低达乌里胡枝子幼苗叶片的超氧阴离子(O₂^-)产生速率、过氧化氢(H₂O₂)、丙二醛(MDA)含量以及细胞膜透性,且随着胁迫时间延长,褪黑素的缓解效应越明显。施加外源褪黑素可以提高达乌里胡枝子幼苗中超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)和抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)等酶构成的酶促抗氧化系统活性,增加抗坏血酸(AsA)、还原性谷胱甘肽(GSH)和类胡萝卜素(CAR)等非酶促抗氧化系统物质的含量,提高植物抵御干旱胁迫的能力。研究表明,外源褪黑素处理可以缓解达乌里胡枝子幼苗干旱胁迫造成的细胞膜过氧化损伤,提高酶促抗氧化系统的酶活性,增加非酶促抗氧化系统...     

外源褪黑素对干旱胁迫下多年生黑麦草幼苗生理特性的影响

为了研究外源褪黑素(MT)对干旱胁迫下多年生黑麦草幼苗生长的影响,试验以多年生黑麦草为材料,先以叶片喷施法施加外源MT,再采用控水法进行干旱胁迫,共设置6个处理,即CK(干旱+喷施纯化水)、T1(干旱+喷施50μmol/L MT)、T2(干旱+喷施100μmol/L MT)、T3(干旱+喷施150μmol/L MT)、T4(干旱+喷施200μmol/L MT)、T5(干旱+喷施250μmol/L MT),在干旱胁迫第0,3,6,9,12天取样,测定叶绿素a、叶绿素b、游离脯氨酸(Pro)、可溶性糖、丙二醛(MDA)含量,以及过氧化物酶(POD)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性。结果表明：在干旱胁迫第3,6,9,12天,T1、T2、T3处理的叶绿素a(除第9天T2处理外)和叶绿素b(除第3,6,9天T1处理外)含量均显著高于CK处理(P<0.05),其中T3处理的叶绿素a、叶绿素b含量均最高;在干旱胁迫第6,9,12天,T3处理的MDA含量显著低于其他处理(P<0.05);在干旱胁迫第12天时,T3处理的Pro含量和T4处理的可溶性糖含量均显著高于其他处理...     

外源水杨酸对干旱胁迫下小冠花叶片活性氧水平及抗氧化系统的影响

本研究以小冠花幼苗叶片为材料,用0.25,0.5,1和2 mmol/L外源水杨酸(SA)对植株进行叶面喷施,通过盆栽模拟干旱胁迫处理,测定幼苗叶片在连续干旱下膜脂过氧化指标、抗氧化酶活性和非酶抗氧化物含量,研究外源水杨酸对干旱胁迫下小冠花幼苗活性氧水平及抗氧化系统的影响。结果表明,0.5~2.0 mmol/L的水杨酸显著降低了干旱胁迫下小冠花叶片中超氧阴离子(O₂^-·)的产生速率、过氧化氢(H₂O₂)含量、丙二醛(MDA)含量及细胞膜透性,显著提高了过氧化氢酶(CAT)、过氧化物酶(POD)、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性,提升了抗氧化指数,但对抗坏血酸(ASA)和谷胱甘肽(GSH)含量的影响不显著。在干旱胁迫第11天,1 mmol/L SA处理的小冠花叶片O₂^-·产生速率、MDA含量、细胞膜透性显著低于干旱处理79.78%,34.42%,36.96%(P<0.05);CAT酶活性显著高于干旱处理2.45倍(P<0.05);到干旱胁迫第 16天,SOD、POD酶活性比干旱处理提高了3.85和3.63倍。表明外源水杨酸能够降低干旱胁迫下小冠花叶片的活性氧水平,提高小冠花叶片抗氧化能力,缓解干旱胁迫造成的细胞膜脂过氧化损伤,提高了小冠花的抗旱性,尤其以1 mmol/L水杨酸效果最佳。     

外源脱落酸对红砂叶片渗透调节物质含量及抗氧化酶活性的影响

以大田环境中多年龄植物红砂(Reamuria soongorica)植株为材料,采用室外试验研究了自然干旱下喷施2、4、6和8 mg·L^-1的外源脱落酸(abscisic acid,ABA)对红砂叶片渗透调节物质含量及抗氧化酶活性的影响。结果表明,外源ABA能降低红砂叶片中可溶性糖(soluble sugar,SS)、游离脯氨酸(free proline,Pro)和可溶性蛋白(soluble protein,SP)含量,提高超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)、过氧化物酶(peroxidase,POD)和过氧化氢酶(catalase,CAT)活性;随着ABA浓度的增加,ABA作用效应先增强后减弱。其中,6 mg·L^-1的外源ABA作用效应最大,与处理前相比,该浓度下红砂叶片中SS、Pro、SP含量分别显著下降35.75%、90.08%、16.66%,SOD活性显著上升28.94%,POD活性为处理前的1.35倍,CAT活性显著上升84.46%。因此,喷施外源ABA可缓解干旱胁迫对红砂植株的伤害,以喷施6 mg·L^-1的外源ABA效果最佳。在今后荒漠区红砂种群的保育中可喷施6 mg·L^-1的外源ABA缓解干旱胁迫对植株的伤害。     

低温胁迫下番木瓜幼苗对不同浓度氯化钙的生理响应

摘 要：研究低温胁迫下CaCl2对番木瓜幼苗抗寒性的影响,旨在筛选出最佳喷施CaCl2的浓度,提高番木瓜抗寒性,保证幼苗安全越冬提供理论依据和实践依据。以“台农2号”番木瓜幼苗为材料,分别用不同浓度的（100、200、300、400、500 mg /L）CaCl2喷洒番木瓜幼苗,4℃低温胁迫4天,每天测定其第3片功能叶的超氧化物歧化酶( SOD)活性、过氧化物歧化酶(POD)和丙二醛（MDA）含量变化。研究结果表明：施用外源CaCl2提高了幼苗叶片中SOD、POD酶活性且呈先上升后下降的变化趋势,降低了MDA含量的积累呈先下降后上升的变化趋势;在各个浓度处理中,使用300mg/L浓度的CaCl2处理的番木瓜叶片对提高番木瓜幼苗抗寒性效果最好,为最佳使用浓度。     

外源NO对NaCl胁迫下燕麦幼苗氧化损伤的保护作用

用不同浓度的外源一氧化氮(NO)供体SNP处理100 mmol/L NaCl胁迫下一年生燕麦草幼苗,研究了外源NO对NaCl胁迫下燕麦幼苗氧化损伤的影响.结果表明,外源NO可缓解NaCl胁迫造成的燕麦幼苗膜质过氧化产物丙二醛(MDA)含量的升高,促进脯氨酸(Pro)积累,提高超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)和过氧化物酶(POD)活性,并能缓解叶绿素含量的降解,提高可溶性糖的含量.而且NO的这种作用存在明显的剂量效应,其中以0.2 mmol/L SNP处理效果最为显著.     

外源NO对NaCl胁迫下燕麦幼苗抗氧化酶活性和生长的影响

为了探讨外源NO是否能减轻盐胁迫对燕麦（Avena sativa）幼苗的伤害,以水培生长到四叶一心的燕麦幼苗为研究材料,在150 mmol/L NaCl胁迫下,探讨了0.06 mmol/L外源NO供体硝普钠(SNP)处理对白燕6号和内散2号2个燕麦品种幼苗叶片超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、过氧化物酶(POD)、抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)活性以及丙二醛(MDA）含量、质膜透性、叶绿素含量和植株干质量的影响。结果表明,NaCl胁迫下,施入外源NO可提高燕麦叶片SOD、CAT、POD和APX活性,降低MDA含量和质膜透性,并能缓解叶绿素含量的下降,提高植株干质量,从而减轻NaCl胁迫对燕麦幼苗的伤害;但外源NO对不同抗氧化酶活性影响不同,其中对提高SOD、CAT、APX活性的作用相对较大,而对提高POD活性的作用相对较小。     

外源褪黑素对盐胁迫下紫花苜蓿光合作用和生理指标的影响

为了研究褪黑素对盐胁迫下紫花苜蓿光合作用和生理指标的影响,试验以中苜1号和WL903两种紫花苜蓿品种为材料,设置对照组(CK组,含1/2 Hoagland营养液、 NaCl组(200 mmol/L NaCl+1/2 Hoagland营养液)和MT组(100μmol/L褪黑素+200 mmol/L NaCl+1/2 Hoagland营养液),测定叶绿素含量、蒸腾速率、净光合速率、气孔导度、丙二醛(MDA)含量、超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性、过氧化物酶(POD)活性、过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性及脯氨酸(Pro)含量。结果表明：与CK组相比,NaCl组两种紫花苜蓿的叶绿素含量显著降低(P<0.05),光合指标也显著降低(P<0.05);与NaCl组相比,MT组中苜1号和WL903的净光合速率分别提高了8.50%和11.62%(P>0.05)。与CK组相比,NaCl组两种紫花苜蓿的Pro和MDA含量及SOD、POD和CAT活性显著提高(P<0.05);与NaCl组相比,MT组两种紫花苜蓿的MDA含量降低(P>0.05),中苜1号的Pro含量(18.96%)、POD活...     

芒草对NaCl和PEG胁迫的生理响应及相关性分析

采用不同浓度梯度的PEG模拟干旱和NaCl溶液胁迫室内盆栽的芒草,分析芒草幼苗含水量、叶绿素、保护酶系活性、渗透调节物质、膜脂过氧化产物及其之间的相关性,探讨芒草幼苗对PEG和NaCl胁迫的响应和耐干旱、耐盐能力。结果表明:芒草幼苗含水量对PEG胁迫比NaCl胁迫敏感,叶绿素则相反;CAT活性随着PEG和NaCl浓度的增加显著增强(P0.05),POD活性在低浓度PEG(10%)和NaCl 6g/L、12g/L时达到最大,说明CAT和POD响应PEG和NaCl胁迫的活性存在差异;可溶性糖含量在PEG低浓度(10%)时最高,NaCl胁迫下的可溶性糖和MDA含量随盐浓度的增大显著升高(P0.05),Pro含量随PEG和NaCl浓度的增大显著增加(P0.05)。PEG胁迫下自由水含量与POD活性显著负相关,可溶性糖含量与POD活性显著正相关;NaCl胁迫下各生理指标的相关性高于PEG胁迫,可溶性糖含量与Pro和MDA含量极显著正相关,CAT活性与可溶性糖和MDA含量显著正相关。PEG和NaCl胁迫之间,CAT活性和Pro含量极显著正相关,说明芒草对干旱和NaCl胁迫会产生相关的生理适应机制。     

沿阶草不同叶片对土壤铅胁迫的生理生化响应

为了解城市园林地被植物对日益增长的Pb污染的生理生化响应,采用盆栽控制实验,研究了Pb胁迫对沿阶草新生叶片(freshly leaf, FL)、成熟叶片(mature leaf, ML)和老叶叶片(old leaf, OL)超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)活性以及游离脯氨酸(Pro)和丙二醛(MDA)含量的影响。结果表明,Pb胁迫对沿阶草不同叶片SOD、POD、CAT活性以及游离Pro和MDA含量均有不同程度的影响。在设计的土壤Pb浓度下,沿阶草不同叶片SOD、POD和CAT活性随着土壤Pb浓度的增加表现出先增加后降低的趋势,游离Pro和MDA含量则随着土壤Pb浓度增加而增加,但不同叶片对土壤Pb胁迫的响应存在差异,以FL最敏感,ML次之,OL最不敏感。这表明,沿阶草能适应一定浓度范围的Pb污染胁迫,但不同叶片对Pb污染的响应与适应机制存在差异,FL对Pb胁迫的生理响应更敏感,而OL对Pb污染胁迫的敏感度相对较低。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.