A mitochondrial pyruvate carrier required for pyruvate uptake in yeast, Drosophila, and humans

Pyruvate constitutes a critical branch point in cellular carbon metabolism. We have identified two proteins, Mpc1 and Mpc2, as essential for mitochondrial pyruvate transport in yeast, Drosophila, and humans. Mpc1 and Mpc2 associate to form an ~150-kilodalton complex in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Yeast and Drosophila mutants lacking MPC1 display impaired pyruvate metabolism, with an accumulation of upstream metabolites and a depletion of tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. Loss of yeast Mpc1 results in defective mitochondrial pyruvate uptake, and silencing of MPC1 or MPC2 in mammalian cells impairs pyruvate oxidation. A point mutation in MPC1 provides resistance to a known inhibitor of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier. Human genetic studies of three families with children suffering from lactic acidosis and hyperpyruvatemia revealed a causal locus that mapped to MPC1, changing single amino acids that are conserved throughout eukaryotes. These data demonstrate that Mpc1 and Mpc2 form an essential part of the mitochondrial pyruvate carrier.     

Role of the ABC transporter Mdl1 in peptide export from mitochondria

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) adenosine triphosphatases actively transport a wide variety of compounds across biological membranes. Here, the ABC protein Mdl1 was identified as an intracellular peptide transporter localized in the inner membrane of yeast mitochondria. Mdl1 was required for mitochondrial export of peptides with molecular masses of approximately 2100 to 600 daltons generated by proteolysis of inner-membrane proteins by the m-AAA protease in the mitochondrial matrix. Proteolysis by the i-AAA protease in the intermembrane space led to the release of similar-sized peptides independent of Mdl1. Thus, two pathways of peptide efflux from mitochondria exist that may allow communication between mitochondria and their cellular environment.     

水稻质体磷酸盐转运体OsPPT家族成员的功能分析

磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸/磷酸盐转运体(PPT)是植物质体磷酸盐转运蛋白家族(pPTs)成员之一,介导细胞质中的磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸(PEP)进入质体基质的同时,将磷交换到细胞质中。为对水稻OsPPT基因家族进行综合分析,探索其在水稻中的潜在功能。利用水稻原生质体瞬时转化分析OsPPT的亚细胞定位,通过酵母异源表达实验分析OsPPT的磷酸盐转运能力。设置正常供磷和缺磷等非生物胁迫水培实验处理,阐明OsPPT家族成员的组织特异性表达模式,以及对非生物胁迫逆境的响应。结果表明,OsPPT基因家族4个成员均定位于叶绿体膜,而且OsPPT可以在酵母中介导磷酸盐的跨膜转运。此外,通过实时荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)展示了OsPPT基因家族在应对环境胁迫时表达模式上的动态变化,比如磷饥饿,以及脱落酸(abscisic acid,ABA)、水杨酸(salicylic acid,SA)、氯化钠等非生物胁迫环境。OsPPT基因家族可能参与磷酸盐在细胞质和叶绿体之间的运输,同时也可能参与植物对逆境胁迫的响应。     

The cellular functions of small GTP-binding proteins

A substantial number of novel guanine nucleotide binding regulatory proteins have been identified over the last few years but the function of many of them is largely unknown. This article will discuss a particular family of these proteins, structurally related to the Ras oncoprotein. Approximately 30 Ras-related small guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-binding proteins are known, and from yeast to man they appear to be involved in controlling a diverse set of essential cellular functions including growth, differentiation, cytoskeletal organization, and intracellular vesicle transport and secretion.     

解偶联蛋白与动物的能量代谢*

 动物需要能量来维持生命活动,所需的能量主要来源于食物里的碳水化合物、脂肪和蛋白质。即使在体重平衡(非生产、生长状态)动物仍需要能量来维持体重、体温恒定及肌肉的基本活动。最新发现的线粒体内膜转运蛋白质,具有调节能量代谢的作用,它们的活动增加了动物的基础代谢率,这类蛋白质被称为解偶联蛋白(Uncoupling Proteins, UCPs)。UCPs作为质子通道驱散氧化呼吸时形成的H⁺梯度,降低了线粒体膜电位差ΔμH⁺, 从而增加呼吸产热, 阻止ATP的形成。目前已至少发现有5种UCPs(UCP1,UCP2,UCP3,UCP4 和UCP5),这个家族的蛋白质已经在人类、哺乳动物、禽类、鱼、真菌、甚至在植物不同组织的线粒体内膜上被发现。     

细胞膜糖转运系统的蛋白质互作调节研究进展

研究表明,在生物体中,糖的跨膜转运是由糖转运系统介导的,该系统由糖转运蛋白家族蛋白或非糖转运蛋白家族蛋白构成.细胞膜的糖转运不仅受构成转运系统的蛋白基因表达的调节,还受蛋白质互作调节.糖转运蛋白家族成员能够形成同源寡聚体、异源寡聚体,还能与一些非糖转运蛋白发生互作.     

Pyruvate oxidation and the permeability of mitochondria from blowfly flight muscle

The rate of pyruvate oxidation by mitochondria from blowfly flight muscle decreased in the presence of tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane (Tris). An increase in the rate of mitochondrial swelling was concomitant with the loss of pyruvate oxidation. These changes were prevented by bovine serum albumin, adenosine triphosphate, and magnesium ions, factors required for mitochondrial contraction. Proline, but not glutamate or malate, restored the rate of pyruvate oxidation to original values. These findings suggest that mitochondrial swelling leads to leakage of intramitochondrial intermediates of the Krebs cycle, accounting for the decrease in the rate of pyruvate oxidation. Exogenous proline penetrates the mitochondrial membrane and is rapidly oxidized, via glutamate, forming intramitochondrial precursors of oxaloacetate. Malate and glutamate were ineffective because of the selective permeability of the mitochondrial membrane.     

ER cargo properties specify a requirement for COPII coat rigidity mediated by Sec13p

Eukaryotic secretory proteins exit the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) via transport vesicles generated by the essential coat protein complex II (COPII) proteins. The outer coat complex, Sec13-Sec31, forms a scaffold that is thought to enforce curvature. By exploiting yeast bypass-of-sec-thirteen (bst) mutants, where Sec13p is dispensable, we probed the relationship between a compromised COPII coat and the cellular context in which it could still function. Genetic and biochemical analyses suggested that Sec13p was required to generate vesicles from membranes that contained asymmetrically distributed cargoes that were likely to confer opposing curvature. Thus, Sec13p may rigidify the COPII cage and increase its membrane-bending capacity; this function could be bypassed when a bst mutation renders the membrane more deformable.     

Connected to death: the (unexpurgated) mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis

The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis in vertebrates is dependent on the process of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP), which leads to the release of proteins from the mitochondrial intermembrane space into the cytosol. "Upstairs" of this event are the Bcl-2 family proteins that regulate and mediate MOMP; "downstairs" is the activation of caspases that orchestrate the dismantling of the cell. In the Connections Map database at Science's Signal Transduction Knowledge Environment (STKE), the pathways that define the mitochondrial pathway of apotosis are illustrated, with the bulk of control occurring "upstairs" of MOMP.     

Signal-mediated dynamic retention of glycosyltransferases in the Golgi

Golgi-resident glycosyltransferases are a family of enzymes that sequentially modify glycoproteins in a subcompartment-specific manner. These type II integral membrane proteins are characterized by a short cytoplasmically exposed amino-terminal tail and a luminal enzymatic domain. The cytoplasmic tails play a role in the localization of glycosyltransferases, and coat protein complex I (COPI) vesicle-mediated retrograde transport is also involved in their Golgi localization. However, the tails of these enzymes lack known COPI-binding motifs. Here, we found that Vps74p bound to a pentameric motif present in the cytoplasmic tails of the majority of yeast Golgi-localized glycosyltransferases, as well as to COPI. We propose that Vps74p maintains the steady-state localization of Golgi glycosyltransferases dynamically, by promoting their incorporation into COPI-coated vesicles.     

Role of a highly conserved bacterial protein in outer membrane protein assembly

After transport across the cytoplasmic membrane, bacterial outer membrane proteins are assembled into the outer membrane. Meningococcal Omp85 is a highly conserved protein in Gram-negative bacteria, and its homolog Toc75 is a component of the chloroplast protein-import machinery. Omp85 appeared to be essential for viability, and unassembled forms of various outer membrane proteins accumulated upon Omp85 depletion. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed decreased surface exposure of outer membrane proteins, which was particularly apparent at the cell-division planes. Thus, Omp85 is likely to play a role in outer membrane protein assembly.     

Membrane proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum induce high-curvature tubules

The tubular structure of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) appears to be generated by integral membrane proteins, the reticulons and a protein family consisting of DP1 in mammals and Yop1p in yeast. Here, individual members of these families were found to be sufficient to generate membrane tubules. When we purified yeast Yop1p and incorporated it into proteoliposomes, narrow tubules (approximately 15 to 17 nanometers in diameter) were generated. Tubule formation occurred with different lipids; required essentially only the central portion of the protein, including its two long hydrophobic segments; and was prevented by mutations that affected tubule formation in vivo. Tubules were also formed by reconstituted purified yeast Rtn1p. Tubules made in vitro were narrower than normal ER tubules, due to a higher concentration of tubule-inducing proteins. The shape and oligomerization of the "morphogenic" proteins could explain the formation of the tubular ER.     

Aconitase couples metabolic regulation to mitochondrial DNA maintenance

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is essential for cells to maintain respiratory competency and is inherited as a protein-DNA complex called the nucleoid. We have identified 22 mtDNA-associated proteins in yeast, among which is mitochondrial aconitase (Aco1p). We show that this Krebs-cycle enzyme is essential for mtDNA maintenance independent of its catalytic activity. Regulation of ACO1 expression by the HAP and retrograde metabolic signaling pathways directly affects mtDNA maintenance. When constitutively expressed, Aco1p can replace the mtDNA packaging function of the high-mobility-group protein Abf2p. Thus, Aco1p may integrate metabolic signals and mtDNA maintenance.     

TMEM16A, a membrane protein associated with calcium-dependent chloride channel activity

Calcium-dependent chloride channels are required for normal electrolyte and fluid secretion, olfactory perception, and neuronal and smooth muscle excitability. The molecular identity of these membrane proteins is still unclear. Treatment of bronchial epithelial cells with interleukin-4 (IL-4) causes increased calcium-dependent chloride channel activity, presumably by regulating expression of the corresponding genes. We performed a global gene expression analysis to identify membrane proteins that are regulated by IL-4. Transfection of epithelial cells with specific small interfering RNA against each of these proteins shows that TMEM16A, a member of a family of putative plasma membrane proteins with unknown function, is associated with calcium-dependent chloride current, as measured with halide-sensitive fluorescent proteins, short-circuit current, and patch-clamp techniques. Our results indicate that TMEM16A is an intrinsic constituent of the calcium-dependent chloride channel. Identification of a previously unknown family of membrane proteins associated with chloride channel function will improve our understanding of chloride transport physiopathology and allow for the development of pharmacological tools useful for basic research and drug development.     

Genetic and pharmacological suppression of oncogenic mutations in ras genes of yeast and humans

The activity of an oncoprotein and the secretion of a pheromone can be affected by an unusual protein modification. Specifically, posttranslational modification of yeast a-factor and Ras protein requires an intermediate of the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway. This modification is apparently essential for biological activity. Studies of yeast mutants blocked in sterol biosynthesis demonstrated that the membrane association and biological activation of the yeast Ras2 protein require mevalonate, a precursor of sterols and other isoprenes such as farnesyl pyrophosphate. Furthermore, drugs that inhibit mevalonate biosynthesis blocked the in vivo action of oncogenic derivatives of human Ras protein in the Xenopus oocyte assay. The same drugs and mutations also prevented the posttranslational processing and secretion of yeast a-factor, a peptide that is farnesylated. Thus, the mevalonate requirement for Ras activation may indicate that attachment of a mevalonate-derived (isoprenoid) moiety to Ras proteins is necessary for membrane association and biological function. These observations establish a connection between the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway and transformation by the ras oncogene and offer a novel pharmacological approach to investigating, and possibly controlling, ras-mediated malignant transformations.     

杜仲ABC转运蛋白基因家族成员鉴定与分析

ABC转运蛋白(ATP—binding cassette transpoter)是一类庞大而古老的跨膜运输蛋白家族,在生物体内参与多种物质的转运积累、有害物质解毒、气孔调节、植物防御等生理活动。杜仲(Eucommia ulmoides Oliv)作为重要的中药材,其药用成分主要为次生代谢产物,次生代谢物转运与积累过程需要ABC转运蛋白的参与。利用生物信息学手段对杜仲ABC转运蛋白基因家族进行鉴定,并分析该家族蛋白质性质和结构、跨膜结构、亚细胞定位、系统进化关系。研究表明,EuABC家族生物信息学预测有76个成员,含有1~7个保守基序;编码蛋白多为稳定蛋白,主要分布于细胞质膜上,二级结构以α-螺旋和无规卷曲为主要构成元件;进化树分析表明,杜仲ABC转运蛋白家族可分为8个亚家族(A~G;I),每组成员数量分别为3、19、14、1、1、1、29、8。研究结果可为进一步研究杜仲次生代谢物质转运与积累奠定基础,也为其他植物ABC转运蛋白家族的研究提供了参考依据。     

Biosynthesis of the Torpedo californica acetylcholine receptor alpha subunit in yeast

Yeast cells were transformed with a plasmid containing complementary DNA encoding the alpha subunit of the Torpedo californica acetylcholine receptor. These cells synthesized a protein that had the expected molecular weight, antigenic specificity, and ligand-binding properties of the alpha subunit. The subunit was inserted into the yeast plasma membrane, demonstrating that yeast has the apparatus to express a membrane-bound receptor protein and to insert such a foreign protein into its plasma membrane. The alpha subunit constituted approximately 1 percent of the total yeast membrane. The alpha subunit constituted approximately 1 percent of the total yeast membrane proteins, and its density was about the same in the plasma membrane of yeast and in the receptor-rich electric organ of Electrophorus electricus. In view of the available technology for obtaining large quantities of yeast proteins, it may now be possible to obtain amplified amounts of interesting membrane-bound proteins for physical and biochemical studies.     

Control of fusion pore dynamics during exocytosis by Munc18

Intracellular membrane fusion is mediated by the SNARE (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor) proteins. All vesicle transport steps also have an essential requirement for a member of the Sec1 protein family, including the neuronal Munc18-1 (also known as nSec1) in regulated exocytosis. Here, in adrenal chromaffin cells, we expressed a Munc18 mutant with reduced affinity for syntaxin, which specifically modified the kinetics of single-granule exocytotic release events, consistent with an acceleration of fusion pore expansion. Thus, Munc18 functions in a late stage in the fusion process, where its dissociation from syntaxin determines the kinetics of postfusion events.     

The pathophysiology of mitochondrial cell death

In the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, caspase activation is closely linked to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). Numerous pro-apoptotic signal-transducing molecules and pathological stimuli converge on mitochondria to induce MOMP. The local regulation and execution of MOMP involve proteins from the Bcl-2 family, mitochondrial lipids, proteins that regulate bioenergetic metabolite flux, and putative components of the permeability transition pore. MOMP is lethal because it results in the release of caspase-activating molecules and caspase-independent death effectors, metabolic failure in the mitochondria, or both. Drugs designed to suppress excessive MOMP may avoid pathological cell death, and the therapeutic induction of MOMP may restore apoptosis in cancer cells in which it is disabled. The general rules governing the pathophysiology of MOMP and controversial issues regarding its regulation are discussed.     

A 115-kD polypeptide immunologically related to erythrocyte band 3 is present in Golgi membranes

Band 3 multigene family consists of several distinct but structurally related polypeptides which are probably involved in the transport of anions across the plasma membrane of both erythrocytes and nonerythroid cells. A novel member of this family of polypeptides that resides in the Golgi complex was identified with antibodies to Band 3. The Golgi antigen had a larger molecular size and was antigenically distinct from Band 3 in the amino-terminal domain. It was expressed most prominently in cells that secrete large amounts of sulfated proteins and proteoglycans. This polypeptide may participate in sulfate transport across Golgi membranes.